Special Education Assessment Pre Referral Screening RTI Process School Psychologists Assessment

PRE-REFERRAL SCREENING School Psychologist Special Education Assessment Pre-Referral Screening/RTI ProcessAbstractChildren with special needs require specialized interventions that help them attain the desired educational and behavioral goals the same as other students. These desires attract different forms of interventions, most of which focus on the steps that should be followed to enroll students in special programs. The procedures constitute pre-screening and pre-referral. The two serve as the assessment tools to determine if children are absorbed in special education programs. School psychologists, parents, and other experts desire to adopt other mechanisms that enable students to achieve similar goals. However, special children fail the test in many cases, making them potential candidates for the program. The bottom line in these procedures is enrolling only those eligible and those whom other interventions fail to work. This paper concentrates on school psychologists\' different special education roles and the various interventions used in supporting needy students.Table of ContentsChapter 1: Introduction 3Chapter 2: Methods 11Chapter 3: Review of Literature 18Chapter 4: Results and Discussion 35Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations 40Annotated Bibliography 46References 51School Psychologist Special Education Assessment Pre-Referral Screening/RTI processChapter 1: IntroductionOne of the critical roles of professionals in schools is to run activities related to children\'s placement and referrals under special education. In practice, school psychologists assume evaluating children to determine those who qualify for such special services. The process takes different directions depending on the perception. On many occasions, the nature of a teacher\'s perception determines the validity of the referral process. A common principle question is the standards that schools use to measure the referral process\'s effectiveness or whether it meets the threshold to proceed with the process. The response is within reports by teachers but again raises questions about the accuracy of the self-report. This matter causes mixed reactions (Vanderheyden, Witt & Naquin, 2003). This paper seeks to dissect all the issues related to pre-referral screening and the roles of school psychologists.School psychologists offer numerous services that focus on helping youth and children achieve social, academic, emotional, and behavioral effectiveness. In doing so, they embark on mental health initiatives and educational services for youth and children. They also involve educators, parents, and different professionals who offer a supportive and social environment. Their role as psychologists requires that they apply their expertise during collaboration and consultation. During the process, psychologists guide decision-making by assessing the foundation of collected data. Their roles extend to engaging students in socialization, academic skills, learning, and mental health.School psychologists help enhance competency in different children and families by promoting effective learning, offering secure learning environments, responding to crises, nurturing the right behavior, and improving collaboration. These services are based on proper considerations of diversity in learning and development, professional practices, research programs, and ethical and legal domains. School psychologists are approved by educational agencies bestowed with regulatory authority to assess the credentials of potential professionals. Psychologists work in private and public education and school contexts (National Association of School Psychologists, 2010).The Referral ProcessEvery student begins a career journey with some needs. The most fundamental of all is professional guidance from educators to enable them to understand the surrounding world. Students often meet highly-qualified professionals during their first encounter in class. This is independent of their knowledge levels as there is always someone higher than them in terms of knowledge. However, children with special needs require a different set of professionals who understand their needs beyond what a standard classroom offers. During this phase, the educator, counselor, parent, or even selected educators witness challenges that special students face in their education acquisition journey. Appreciating the academic discrepancies that such students…

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…PRE-REFERRALSCREENINGSchoolPsychologistSpecialEducationAssessmentPre-ReferralScreening/RTIProcessAbstractChildrenwithspecialneedsrequirespecializedinterventionsthathelpthemattainthedesirededucationalandbehavioralgoalsthesameasotherstudents.Thesedesiresattractdifferentformsofinterventions,mostofwhichfocusonthestepsthatshouldbefollowedtoenrollstudentsinspecialprograms.Theproceduresconstitutepre-screeningandpre-referral.Thetwoserveastheassessmenttoolstodetermineifchildrenareabsorbedinspecialeducationprograms.Schoolpsychologists,parents,andotherexpertsdesiretoadoptothermechanismsthatenablestudentstoachievesimilargoals.However,specialchildrenfailthetestinmanycases,makingthempotentialcandidatesfortheprogram.Thebottomlineintheseproceduresisenrollingonlythoseeligibleandthosewhomotherinterventionsfailtowork.Thispaperconcentratesonschoolpsychologists\'differentspecialeducationrolesandthevariousinterventionsusedinsupportingneedystudents.TableofContentsChapter1:Introduction3Chapter2:Methods11Chapter3:ReviewofLiterature18Chapter4:ResultsandDiscussion35Chapter5:ConclusionandRecommendations40AnnotatedBibliography46References51SchoolPsychologistSpecialEducationAssessmentPre-ReferralScreening/RTIprocessChapter1:IntroductionOneofthecriticalrolesofprofessionalsinschoolsistorunactivitiesrelatedtochildren\'splacementandreferralsunderspecialeducation.Inpractice,schoolpsychologistsassumeevaluatingchildrentodeterminethosewhoqualifyforsuchspecialservices.Theprocesstakesdifferentdirectionsdependingontheperception.Onmanyoccasions,thenatureofateacher\'sperceptiondeterminesthevalidityofthereferralprocess.Acommonprinciplequestionisthestandardsthatschoolsusetomeasurethereferralprocess\'seffectivenessorwhetheritmeetsthethresholdtoproceedwiththeprocess.Theresponseiswithinreportsbyteachersbutagainraisesquestionsabouttheaccuracyoftheself-report.Thismattercausesmixedreactions(Vanderheyden,Witt&Naquin,2003).Thispaperseekstodissectalltheissuesrelatedtopre-referralscreeningandtherolesofschoolpsychologists.Schoolpsychologistsoffernumerousservicesthatfocusonhelpingyouthandchildrenachievesocial,academic,emotional,andbehavioraleffectiveness.Indoingso,theyembarkonmentalhealthinitiativesandeducationalservicesforyouthandchildren.Theyalsoinvolveeducators,parents,anddifferentprofessionalswhoofferasupportiveandsocialenvironment.Theirroleaspsychologistsrequiresthattheyapplytheirexpertiseduringcollaborationandconsultation.Duringtheprocess,psychologistsguidedecision-makingbyassessingthefoundationofcollecteddata.Theirrolesextendtoengagingstudentsinsocialization,academicskills,learning,andmentalhealth.Schoolpsychologistshelpenhancecompetencyindifferentchildrenandfamiliesbypromotingeffectivelearning,offeringsecurelearningenvironments,respondingtocrises,nurturingtherightbehavior,andimprovingcollaboration.Theseservicesarebasedonproperconsiderationsofdiversityinlearninganddevelopment,professionalpractices,researchprograms,andethicalandlegaldomains.Schoolpsychologistsareapprovedbyeducationalagenciesbestowedwithregulatoryauthoritytoassessthecredentialsofpotentialprofessionals.Psychologistsworkinprivateandpubliceducationandschoolcontexts(NationalAssociationofSchoolPsychologists,2010).TheReferralProcessEverystudentbeginsacareerjourneywithsomeneeds.Themostfundamentalofallisprofessionalguidancefromeducatorstoenablethemtounderstandthesurroundingworld.Studentsoftenmeethighly-qualifiedprofessionalsduringtheirfirstencounterinclass.Thisisindependentoftheirknowledgelevelsasthereisalwayssomeonehigherthanthemintermsofknowledge.However,childrenwithspecialneedsrequireadifferentsetofprofessionalswhounderstandtheirneedsbeyondwhatastandardclassroomoffers.Duringthisphase,theeducator,counselor,parent,orevenselectededucatorswitnesschallengesthatspecialstudentsfaceintheireducationacquisitionjourney.Appreciatingtheacademicdiscrepanciesthatsuchstudentsfaceandtheiruniquenessinemotions,behavior,andotherelementsenabletheeducatorstodeterminerequiredsupport(TexasCouncilforDevelopmentalDisabilities,2013).Someofthechallengesstudentsfacewithspecialneedscanbesolvedthroughpersistentengagementbetweentheparentsandtheteachers.Onemethodisbyformulatingaplanofactionthatincorporatesthebeststrategiestomeasureachild\'sprogress.Nominatedteacherscompileworksamplesbystudentsandkeeprelevantassessmentdataforstudentswhodisplayuniqueneeds.Thedocumentationprocessisvitalbecauseitenablestheteachertomonitortheprogressofthestudent.Thepre-referralinterventionsaidintheidentification,development,andimplementationofdifferenteducationalstrategies.Theseinterventionsrefertothedocumentationgatheredfromaclassroomsetup.Problemsmustfirstbeidentifiedbeforeproceedingtospecialeducation.Itisaformalprocessthatfirstofferstogivetemporalaccommodationtostudents.TheStudent-CenteredTeamcarriesoutPre-referralinterventions.Thesegroupsareknownbydifferentnamessuchasastudentsupportteam,instructionalsupportteam,interventionassistanceteam,teacherassistanceteam,orearlyinterventionteam.Theteamcomprisesguardians/parents,teachers,administrators,nurses,andcounselors.Otherparticipantswhotakepartintheeducationprocessofthestudentarealsoallowed.First,thegeneraleducationteacherspresenttotheteamallrelevantinformationconcerningthestudent.Afterthat,thegroupproceedstodeveloppotentialsolutions.RTIoffersthreeinterventionlevelstostudentsfacingproblems,Level1,oftenreferredtoasTier1,usesgeneraleducationinstructionsandonlycaptureshigh-qualityinformationfromthecurriculum.RTIprojectsthatapproximately80percentofthestudentpopulationpositivelyrespondstobehavioralsystemsandthecorecurriculum.Thisleadstothesecondlevel(Tier2),whichgivesthetargetgroupremediationorinstructionstoenhanceperformance.ThisleveltheorizesthatTier2leadstoanimprovementofabout15percentofthestudents.Ifnonotableimprovementisrecordedinthesecondstage,thestudentsproceedtothethirdlevelwithin-depthandpersonalizedinterventions.Theprincipalgoaloftheprocess,beitRTIorpre-referralprogram,istoenablestudentstoattainexcellencewithoutjoiningaspecialeducationprogram.Ifallthepreliminaryinitiativesfailtoachievethestudent\'sdesiredoutcomes,theyareassessedforpossibleenrollmentinthespecialeducationprogram.Interventionsinthegeneralclassroomareintendedtohelpdeterminethestudent\'sabilitiesandpotentialcandidatesforspecialeducation.Studentsonlyproceedintotheprogramiftheyshownosignsofimprovementorwhenschoolpersonnelrecommendsthekidsforevaluation.Referralstomakethesedeterminationsaregovernedby:Theopinionsothenominatedschoolpersonnel,includingcounselors,teachers,andotherkeyplayers.ThedecisionbythelegalguardingorparentTheviewofotherkeyplayersactiveinthelifeoreducationofthechild.Theofficialprocessofreferralstartsbydeterminingeligibility.Onceareferralisgranted,theschoolproceedstoseekconsentfromtheparentsandthengetsintotheactivereferralevaluationprocess.ItisrecommendedbyIDEAthattheevaluationprocessmustbenondiscriminatoryandmulti-factored.Thereportshouldbepresentedtotheschooldistrict60daysafterthereferraldate.Thereportisthenexaminedbyamultidisciplinarygroupofexpertswhogivetheirdiverseopinionsforevaluation.Standardteammembersinclude:EducationalDiagnosticiancommonlyreferredtoasPsychometrist.Insomeinstances,theofficertakesthenameoftheSchoolPsychologist:Theyhavetheskillstoconducteducationsassessmentssuchasbehavior,achievement,andintelligencequotient(IQ).SpecialEducatorsarequalifiedtoevaluatebehaviorandachievementtogetherwithinformalobservations.GeneralEducatorsproviderelevantdocumentationregardingthestatusofeachstudent.Legalguardiansorparentsplayacriticalroleinthepersonalityandbehaviorofstudents.Theyalsoinfluencehowtheyinteractwiththeirenvironment.Associatedserviceproviderssuchastherapists,audiologists,andmobilityspecialists.Theyareinstrumentalinprovidingspecificinformationabouttheconditionbeingassessed.Medicaldoctors,includingoptometrists,psychiatrists,andophthalmologists.Theydeterminethelevelofdisabilityhencetheeligibilitytojoinspecialeducation(TexasCouncilforDevelopmentalDisabilities,2013).TheRoleofSchoolPsychologistintheRTIProcessTheResponsivenesstoIntervention(RTI)entailsacomprehensiveapproachthatincludesprovidingservicesandadaptinginterventionsforlearners\'challenges.RTIcanbeemployedinthedecision-makingprocessforspecialeducation,seamlesssystems,andcompensatoryinterventionsguidedbydataoutcome.RTIrequiresidentifyingbehavioralrequirements,collaborations,inputsbyteachers,andresourcestoensurethatstudentsprogresseducation.RTIisbestappliedingeneraleducationsettings.RTIcanbeusedbyschoolpersonneltocategorizestrugglinganddisabledchildren.Forthis,uniqueinterventionandassessmentproceduresarerequiredingeneraleducation.Whenapplyingcollaborativemethodologies,itisessentialtorealizethatitdependsontheexperiencesandtheenvironmentoftheinvolvedparties.Additionally,parentswithaproperunderstandingoftheRTIsystemcanguidetheirchildrenandgatherimportantinformationaboutspecialeducation(NationalAssociationofSchoolPsychologists,2006).RTIincorporatesthefollowingactivitiesandconditions:Itenhancedbehavioralandinstructionalsupport.Scientificandresearch-basedinitiativesthatareguidedbyprofessionalswhounderstanddifficultiesinstudents.Constantstudentprogressmonitoring.Maintenanceofdocumentationthatisbasedonstudentdata.Structureddocumentationensuresthatinterventionsareexecutedwithintegrity,fidelity,andwiththenecessaryintensity.Collaborativedecision-makingbyschoolstaff.Thestaffensuresproperreviewsandevaluationofavailabledataandinformation.Interventionsthataddressstudents\'difficultiesandthenecessarydegreeofrequiredintensitybasedonthepersonnelandavailableresources.Writtendocumentationthatdescribestheessentialstructureandcomponentsneededbyrelevantparentsandprofessionals.Parentannouncementsandassociateddocumentation.SinceRTIplaysapreventiveroleinschools,itcoversstudents\'dynamicinstructionstoenhancetheirbehaviorandacademicskills.Theeducationsystemmustdeploycollectiveresourcestomeettherequirementsofstudents.Theseinterventionshelppreventpossiblebroaderissuesthatmayariseifthepresentchallengesarenotarrestedattherighttime.Commonproblemsincludebehavioralandlearningchallenges.TheeffortsrequirethesupportoftheIndividualswithDisabilitiesEducationImprovementActof2004(IDEA2004),whichprovidesfinancialflexibility,especiallytothelocaleducationagencies(LEAs).EarlyInterveningServices(EIS)aidintheminimizationofunnecessaryreferralsandexcessidentification.LEAscancommitmorethan15%ofIDEAresourcestoofferbehavioralandacademicsupportstopreventearlyidentificationamonglearners.LEAenjoyssignificantflexibilityandcanutilize50%ofreceivedfederalfundingtopromoteitsactivities.Thefundsareroutedindevelopingnon-specialprofessionalsandRTIactivities(NationalAssociationofSchoolPsychologists,2006).Researchindicatesthatstudentswhofailtoachieveevenunderhighlevelsofinstructioncouldexhibitdisability.RTIcanhelpinrulingoutcasesoflearningdisabilitiesinsteadofapplyingthediscrepancymodelforidentification.ThemethodwasapprovedbyIDEAin2004andofferedthefollowingprovisions:a.LocalEducationAgencies(LEAs)canutilizestudents\'responsestodesignscientificinstructionsthatcanbeusedintheevaluation.b.Inidentifyingadisability,LEAsareexpectedtoverifywherethechildrenshowanysignsofdiscrepanciesbetweenintellectualandachievementabilities(NationalAssociationofSchoolPsychologists,2006).TheU.S.populationdistributiongivesthechallengesthatschoolpsychologistsfaceregardingculturalresponsivenessandpreventionofbehavior,health,andacademicproblems.Theissuesariseduetoincreaseddiversity,whichrequirespsychologiststocreateawareness,skillsanddevelopknowledgetoservethedynamicpopulation.Challengesdonotoccurbecausediversityinitselfexists.Realizationofthesechallengesisessentialconsideringtherolepsychologistsplayinpreventinggrowinganddiversepopulations.Anytimepsychologistsadoptprimarypreventionmeasuresondiversepopulationstofixproblems,apreventiveframeworkshouldaddressissuesthatneedpreventionmeasures.ThepreventiveplatformappliedinMTSSprovidesschoopsychologistswithidealopportunitiestoservethecommunityandschools.Thesupporthelpsestablishprogramsthatpromotechildren\'sinteractionwiththeenvironment(Proctor&Meyers,2014).ThecreationofprogramsusingtheMTSSplatformoffersexistingprogramswithadditionalfeaturessuchasdatabase-orienteddecision-making,universalscreening,andproceduralproblem-solvingprograms.Awarenessofthepsychologistsandtheirknowledgeinhandlingmulticulturalchallengesenablethefacilitationofculturalpracticeswhendeployingprimarypreventionfordiversepopulations.Theseculturalconsiderationsincludeinputgathering,readingprograms,developmentofprogramsbasedontraditionalconcepts,useofculturallyrelevantinterventions,adoptionofinputsfromstakeholders,andapplicationofrecursivemethodstomodifydatawiththedesireofmeetingculturalrelevance.Themulticulturalknowledgeandskillsamongtheschoolpsychologistsgivethemapowerfulpositiontoenablethemtoleadinthedeploymentofpreventionprogramsincommunitiesanddiverseschools(Proctor&Meyers,2014).Inaneducationalenvironment,schoolpsychologistsoftenfacepracticalbarriersandadministrativeproblemsnotcommoninresearchsettings.Evenwhenexpertsareinformedaboutpossibleempiricalevidencethatsupportsdifferentproceduresandtechniques,theymayfailtoputthemintopractice.Theprobablereasontheyarehesitantistheresourcesandtimerequiredtoexecute(Kratochwill&Shernoff,2004).Chapter2:MethodsTheprincipalobjectiveofaschoolpsychologistisfoundedonservicedeliverytofamiliesandchildren.Theprovisionofservicestoadolescentsandchildrentosucceedinemotional,social,behavioral,andemotionalcontextsalsoformspartoftheirultimategoal.Itimpliesthatthepsychologists\'rolerequirescompetentassessmentfollowedbyspecializedinterventionandmentalhealthskills.Thesecapacitiesshouldserveallchildren,eventhosefromdiverseethnicandculturalbackgrounds(Jones,2014).Thedynamicsinbehavioralanddyadicconsultationsarethefirstsetofcompetentskillsneededinpre-referralgroups.Theseskillsalsocontainverbalinteractionabilitiesandteachingassistantrolestogiveacollaborativeandconsultiveservice(Kovaleski,2002).Oneofthewaysusedtoassessstudentsisbyuseofuniversalscreenings.Itemployssystematic,preventive,andstandardizedproceduressuchasbehavioralandsocial-emotionaltests.Suchinitiativesaimtoofferearlyinterventionsandidentificationservicestostudents(Albers&Kettler,2014).Proceduresfornondiscriminatoryassessmentarethoughtofasstandardmethodsthatencourageequaltreatmentofpeopleofdifferentracesorculturalbackgrounds.Similarly,bilingualassessmentisamongthemostwidelyusedwaysofestablishingreferencedevaluations,especiallyforindividualswithdiverselanguagebackgroundsbesidesEnglish.Inpractice,peoplewithdifferentlanguagesoftendisplayvariedculturesthatshowracialdiversity.Inthisview,everyevaluationprocesscontainsuniqueconcerns,andnosinglephrasecapturesafullynondiscriminatorystrategy(Ortiz,2007).Schoolpsychologistsalsoassumedifferentleadershipresponsibilitiesinschools.Theydonothavetohavetheofficialleadershipcapacity,buttherolesoftendisplaycollaboration,mentalhealthawareness,andschoolandhomecollaborations.Thesefunctionsindirectlycontributetoleadershiproles.Inspecialeducationandinterventionassistance,schoolpsychologistsserveinthecreationofpre-screeningreferralcapabilitiesby:ParticipatinginconsultationsandimplementationstrategiesonissuesthataddresstheneedsofstudentsTheconstantdevelopmentofcollaborativeinitiativesinthecreationsofteamprocedures.Forexample,intierevaluations,referralprocedures,interventionresponses,andtheestablishmentofprotocolsforbothinterviewsandobservations.IdentifyingtheneedsoftheteamsbyhelpingthemindifferenttrainingmethodssuchasdecisionmakingandmonitoringActingasleadliaisonstoguardiansandparentsbyunderstandingdifferentmodelsandimpactingchildren\'slives.Thisroleensuresthatthecontributionofparentsisintegratedintosubsequentevaluationsandinterventions.Actingascommunityliaisons,especiallytoagenciesandproviderswhomayfinddifferentmodelshardtounderstand.Insuchcases,theyhelpinthetrainingproceduresthatensureactiveparticipationandinvolvementincommunityinitiatives.ThiscomesafteragrantedparentalconsentProvisionandintegrationofmonitoringprogressiverolesthatentailtheincorporationofdatafordecisionmaking.Manyschoolpsychologistscontinueusingasignificantfractionoftheirprofessionalschedulestoaddressuniquestudentproblems.InRTIsettings,theseactivitiesinclude:Parentandteacherconsultationregardinginterventioninitiativesathomeandinclassrooms.SinceRTIconcentratesonTier1orearlyinterventions,schoolspsychologistsarelikelytoputmoreeffortsintothisphasecomparedtotheoldmodelsEngagingintraininganddemonstrationinitiativesinthestrategicmonitoringprocesses.Activitiesinthephaseincludeassistingthestaff,studentinterventions,andofferingassistanceinthedecision-makingprocedures.Observingstudents\'performanceintheirinstructionalenvironmenthelpsidentifythecorrectstrategicinterventions,identifyinterventionbarriers,andgatherresponseslinkedtointerventiondata.Evaluationofcognitivefunctionsinstudents.Schoolpsychologiststakepartindetailedevaluationprocedures.EachtimestudentsconnecttoaSpecificLearningDisability(SLD)andothercategoriesofdisabilities.Theteammustgathercognitive-relatedinformation.Basedonthecriteriaandrulesgoverningadistrictorstate,cognitiverolesmayincludestudentobservation,reviewofstudentprogress,health,interviewingteachersandparents,responsetointerventions,testsforcognitiveabilities,andothercognitiveproceduresassociatedwithacademicskills.Applicationofmultipledatasourcestohandlecognitivefunctioninginstudents.Thisprocedureformspartofbestpracticesandreduceslimitationsinnorm-referencedIQtestsandbiases,particularlyforchildrenfromdiversecultures,racial,economic,andracialbackgrounds.Determinationofreferralproceduresforstudents.Inthiscase,schoolpsychologistsmaytakelimitedtimedoingformalassessmentsthroughindividualassessments.Thisroleisinlinewith\"gatekeeping\"procedures.\"Evaluationofacademiclevelsinstudents,mentalhealth,andbehavior.Inthethreecategories,itisrecommendedthattheschoolpsychologistmustconsidertheelementslikelytoaffectacademicperformance.TheroleissimilarinboththetraditionalandRTImodels.Whenmentalandbehavioralelementsarenoteliminatedinevaluatingtheeducationalfactors,thepsychologistshouldincorporateotherteammemberstogatheressentialdataempiricallysupported.Newmodelsoftendedicatemoretimetohandlemental-relatedissues.Theprocessofincorporatingotherserviceandteammembersinsettinggoals,instructionaldesign,andmonitoringstrategiesrequireperiodicevaluationofstudentprogress.ItalsocallsforaccesstoRTIdataandotherinformationrelatedtospecialeducation.(NationalAssociationofSchoolPsychologists,2006).Itisimportanttonotethatevaluationandassessmentactivitiesdonotnecessarilyconstituteintervention.Forexample,assumeanindividualhasbeenassessedbuthasnotregisteredanyformofdisability.Theinitialfactorsthatledtotheirconsiderationaspartofthereferralprogramdonoendautomatically.Equally,anincidenceofdisabilitythatiscorrectlyassesseddoesnotconstitutethebestormostreliableremedialstrategies.Insomeassessments,theobjectiveistoexaminetherightplacementsorinstructionsirrespectiveofthedisability.Theseargumentsrevealthatanyformofevaluationonlybecomesusefulifintegratedintotherightinterventions.Itdoesnotdependonthecharacterofdisabilityordisorder.Forschoolevaluations,customizationofinstructionalprogramsandadoptionoftheappropriateremedialmethodisessential.Itshouldapplyevenincaseswhereindividualsdonotqualifyforspecialeducation.Sincetheprocessisideallymeanttobenondiscriminatory,performanceassessmentshouldconsiderallthetreatmentandinterventionstrategiesthataddvaluetotheperformance(Ortiz,2007).ResearchQuestionTheproposedresearchquestionforthecurrentstudyis:Whatisschoolpsychologists\'roletoensurebestpracticesduringthepre-referral(RTI)processbeforestudentsareassessedtodeterminespecialeducationeligibility?ResearchDesignThecurrentstudyundertakesasecondaryresearchapproachduetotheadventofCovid-19sincetheprimaryresearchcouldnothavebeenconductedbyphysicallycontactingtherespondents.Therefore,forthispaper\'spurpose,ascopingreviewhasbeenselectedasthebestappropriatemethodforanalyzingthedata.Thereasonforselectingthisresearchdesignisthatitprovidesabroaderviewoftheresearchquestion.Severalsourcesarecollecedfortheliteraturereview.Theexpandedspectrumofinclusiononwhichthearticleswereselectedisusefultogainalargebodyofliteratureanddiversepreviouslyworkedarticlesforansweringthestudyquestion.Thenatureofthetypeofresearcharticlesrangestoawide-scalesothatawholesomeandcomprehensiveviewoftheliteraturecouldbeattained.Asmanystudieshavebeenincludedinthisscopingreview,adoptingauniversaldefinitionfortheresearchquestionfromallkindsofscholarsisaimedtobecompleted.Whenthescopingreviewwasbeingformulated,theauthors\'limitationsandchallengeswerealsoconsidered.Theirenvironmentsinwhichthestudieswereconductedandtheerrorsthatledtolimitationscouldbereviewedproperly.Conversely,asystematicreviewcouldhavebeenusedtostaylimitedinspecificliteraturestudiesthatcouldhavehelpedanswerthispaper\'sresearchquestion.However,scopingreviewmethodologywasselectedinsteadsothatabroadunderstandingofschoolpsychologists\'rolecouldbegainedinthepre-referralprocess.Thecollectedsecondarydatawouldbeanalyzedwithathematicanalysisinthelatersectionstodeterminethemeswithintheliterature.Thereportingpatternswouldbedetectedsothatcriticalassessmentoftheselectedarticlebecomesconvenient.Thepaperaimstocapitalizeonthematicanalysis\'sstrength,whichistoidentifythemesthatcouldbeidentifiedtodetermineschoolpsychologists\'roleinthepre-referralprocess.Whenthebraidersetofthemeswouldbedeclaredthroughthisanalysis,thesortingofdataintoalargesubsetwouldbecomeeasier.Itwouldcriticallysurveythethemesofthealreadypresentpreviousworksrelatedtothispaper\'scurrentresearchtopic.DataSourcesandSearchStrategyMostofthearticlesweretakenfromEBSCO.Itisconsideredthemostcomprehensivedatabaseforsearchingtherelevantarticlessinceitincludesacademiclibraries,publiclibraries,government,corporations,journals,andthepublishersthemselves.KeywordsUsedForConductingOnlineResearchThekeywordsusedforconductingonlineresearchwererelatedtoschoolpsychologists\'roleinconductingthepre-referralprocess.Thekeywordswereasfollows:Pre-Referralprocess,responsetointervention,RTIprocess,schoolpsychologists,specialeducation,schoolpsychologists\'role,eligibilityforspecialeducationviaRTIprocess,andbestpracticesinRTIorpre-referralprocess.EligibilityCriteriaThearticleswereincludedbasedonthefactthattheywererelevanttotheresearchquestion,whichwasschoolpsychologists\'roleinthepre-referralscreeningprocess.Thearticlesthatwereshowninthesearchresultsthatconcernedmostlyspecialeducationchildrenandotherrelevantcomplexcognitiveproblemsintheireducationwereexcluded.Mostofthesearchresultsgavedocumentsindicatingspecialeducationstudentsandhowschoolpsychologistshelpedintheiracademicperformance.Thispaper\'sfocuswasthepre-referralprocessanditsscreeningprocedurethathelpeddeterminechildrenhavingdifficultiesandrequiredspecialinterventionswithintheschoolor,consequently,referredtotheRTIprocess.Thosearticleswerealsoexcluded,emphasizingthespecialeducationchildren\'sclassroomsettingsandtheteachingstrategiesinculcatedtoprovideeducationandbetteracademicperformancebetter.Thesewereconsideredasthesequeltopicsofresearchforspecialeducationandwerediscarded.Themainattentionofthispaperwasfirsttodetectthosechildrenwhowereeligibleforspecialeducation.Forfulfillingthisgoal,thepre-referralorRTIprocesswashighlightedwithinthekeywordsearch.Chapter3:ReviewofLiteratureIntroductionSincetheResponsetoInterventionmodelin2004,oneofthebiggestchallengesfacedbyeducationistrainingpersonneltomeetthesenewrequirementssuccessfully.SchoolpsychologistscansupportRTIandimprovelearningforallstudents,fromschool-wideprogramdesigntospecificinterventionprograms(Barker,2011).Theirexperiencesandknowledgeofchilddevelopment,socialandemotionaldevelopment,andlearningvaluesmakethemeffectiveschoolinterventionteams.ThereisevidencetoprovethatResponsetoIntervention(RTI)withthehelpofschoolpsychologistsisanapproachthatcanhelpusgiveeverystudentacademicsupportrequiredtoeffectivelylearn(Burns,Appleton,&Stehouwer,2005).RTI\'sfundamentalprincipleisthatlearninginstitutionsshouldnotwaitforstudentstolaginclasstobeeligibleforspecialeducationandofferthemthehelptheyneed.Instead,learninginstitutionsshouldofferdirectedandorderlyinterventionstoalllearnersassoonastheydeterminetheneed.Thisliteraturereviewwilloutlinethesignificantroleplayedbyschoolpsychologists.Itwillalsoidentifyandanalyzewhatisexpectedoftheschoolpsychologists.Italsohasasectionthatdescribesthefindingsofvariousresearchersregardingschoolpsychologists.StudentSupportTeamProcessbeforeRTIBeforetheimplementationofRTI,schoolsappliedtheStudentsSupportTeamprocess.Thisprocesswasintendedtooffersupporttothestudentandteacherthroughacombinedteamapproachwithkeystakeholders.SSTwascreatedbecausethecollaborativeapproachworkswhencomingupwithplansforstudentswithlearningdisabilities.SSTwasavaluabletoolbecauseitprovidedaneffectiveeducationalprogramforlearners(Barrio&Combes,2015).StudentSupportTeamsprovetobemoreeffectiveinlearninginstitutionswherebytheteachersareresponsibleforallstudentsandcanhelpthemincollaborativeproblem-solving.Theprocessentailedbasicstepsfocusedonindividualstudentneeds,learning,programefficiency,andcommunication.Beforeandduringthefirstmeeting,theteammemberscollectrelevantinformationonthestudent\'spastandpresenteducationalandbehavioralperformance.Theinformationwasmainlyfromsourcessuchasparents,officialschoolrecords,andanecdotalrecords.Theteamwouldthenmeettodiscuss,evaluatetheinformationacquired,anddecidewhethermoreinformationisneeded.Theteamwouldthendevelopanindividualeducationalplantailoreddependingonthestudent\'sstrengthsandweaknesses.Plansandtechniquesaresuggestedandsupportedbyalltheteammembersinvolvedintheimplementationprocess.Itisatthistimethatatimelineforafollow-upisestablished.Thedevelopededucationalplaniseffectedforacertainperiod,andsupplementarydataisgatheredifnecessary(Barrio&Combes,2015);andtheteamwouldhaveregularmeetingstodiscussstudentprogressandsupplementaryinformationthatmaybepresented.Incasethereisademandtochangetheeducationplan,thealterationswillbedoneduringtheSSTmeeting.Lastly,thereistheongoingmonitoringandevaluationthatisasignificantpartoftheSSTprocess.Iftheeducationplanprovedsuccessfulandnodisabilitywasdiscovered,theteamcontinuedtoobservethestudentprogressanddecidewhentosupporttheclassroomplans.However,ifadisabilitywerediscovered,theteamwouldadvisethattheygoforpsychologicaltesting.Uponcompletingthetest,theteamwillholdanothermeetingtodiscussspecialeducationeligibility(Barrio&Combes,2015).ManylearninginstitutionsstruggletobenefitfromRTIbecausetheymisguidedlyviewRTIasjustanewmethodofqualifyinglearnersforspecialeducationbydirectingtheeffortstoregulareducationinterventionsbeforereferringthestudentswholaginclasstotraditionalspecialeducationtestingandplacement.OtherschoolsarejustimplementingRTItonotbeonthewrongsideofthelawandstaylegal.TheProblemofDisproportionalRepresentationGravois,&Rosenfield(2006),analyzestheproblemofdisproportionalrepresentationofminoritystudentsinspecialeducation.Althoughtherehavebeenrecommendationsofferedtohelpsolvetheproblem,twochallengesarestillunsolved.Thefirstisthattheextentoftheproblemhasnotbeenfullydefined,andsecond,therehavebeennointerventionswithinschoolstohelpaddresstheproblem.Disproportionateplacementisdefinedasrepresentingacertaingroupoflearnersatadifferentratethanthatfoundintheoverallpopulation.Theproblemofdisproportionaterepresentationcanoccurifthelearners\'placementsareoverrepresentedorunderrepresentedwhenlookingattheirpresenceatcomparingittotheirrepresentationintheoverallpopulation.Gravois&Rosenfield(2006)focusontheoverrepresentationofminoritiesinspecialeducationandtheirunder-representationinprogramssetupforgiftedandtalentedlearners.Theminorities,inparticular,aretheAfricanAmericanstudentswhoareselectedforspecialeducation.ThenumberofBlackstudentsidentifiedforspecialeducationisdisproportionatecomparedtothatoftheirwhitepeers.AccordingtoGravois&Rosenfield(2006),thenumberofAfricanAmericanstudentswhoarementallydisabledstudentsistwicetheotherracesrate.ThereisdataanalysisfromthevariousStateDepartmentofEducationpresentedtobackupthisclaim.Thefirstthemeaddressedintheliteratureaddressingdisproportionalityisculturaldifferencesintutorperceptinsandpracticesconcerningminoritylearners.Accordingtothewriters\'research,sometutorsarguethatminoritylearnersareselectedforspecialeducationclassestoimprovehowtutorsdealwithculturallydiverselearners.Theyprovideideasabouthowteacherscandevelopnewperceptionsandpracticesthatwillleadtogreaterstudentachievementandcutdownthenumberofinappropriatereferralstospecialeducation.Thesecondthemeisbiasinginassessmentproceduresusedwhenselectingtheminoritylearnersforspecialeducationservices.Lastly,thearticleaddressestheeffectivenessofprereferralwhendealingwithstudents\'academicneedsbeforeselectingspecialneedsservices.AccordingtoGravois&Rosenfield(2006),InstructionalConsultationTeams(I.C.Teams)aretobeusedintheproblem-solvingprocessestoensurequalityinstructionandinterventionisprovidedtothem.Thiswillimprovestudentacademicachievement,especiallytheminoritystudents,andthenumberoflearnersselectedforevaluationorplacementinremedialserviceswillreduce.TheI.C.Teammodel\'sconsistentapplicationhasledtodecreasedtotalreferralsandspecialeducationlearners\'placements.AstudyconductedbyGravois&Rosenfield(2006)showstheeffectofimplementingI.C.Teamsonthespecialeducationreferralandplacementpatternsofminoritylearnerswhencomparedtootherlearnersindifferentschoolsinthesamearea.Thestudyresultsshowaneffectonthedisproportionateevaluationandplacementofminoritylearnerscomparedtoschoolsthatcontinuetoapplytheirtraditionalprereferralprocess.IntheschoolswithI.C.Team,thenumberofminoritiesdecreasedinthethreedisproportionalityindicesconcerningreferralforassessmentandplacementintospecialeducation.TheI.C.Team\'simplementationinprojectschoolsledtodecreasedriskindexes,oddsratios,andcompositionindexesofassessmentandplacementofminoritystudents.RTIFrameworkAccordingto(Aspirantietal.,2019),Responsetointervention(RTI)isaninterventionmethodappliedtoofferacademicservicesandinterventionstolearners.ThetwomainpurposesofRTIare;toofferapreemptiveservicedeliverymodelanddetermineanddeterminesuitabilityforspecialeducationservicesundertheclassificationofaspecificlearningdisability(SLD).AsstatesarestartingtonecessitateRTIdataaspartofanSLDidentification,thesuitabilityrequirements\'alterationisaparadigmshiftinvariousschooldistricts\'operationsandbeliefs.RTIcameintoplacewiththere-authorizationoftheIndividualswithDisabilitiesEducationImprovementAct.ThisActofferedstatesthechoiceofdeterminingwhetherastudentrespondstoscientific,research-basedinterventiontoselectastudentinneedofspecialeducation.Achildisonlyeligibleforspecialeducationifthechild\'sacademicperformanceremainspoorafterintensiveinterventionimplementation.Powersetal.(2008)outlineschoolpsychologists\'trainingandprofessionaldevelopmentrequirementsforsuccessfullyimplementinganRTImodel.AccordingtoKratochwill&Shernoff(2004),itisimportanttoidentifyissuesrelatedtoevidence-basedpracticeandhowtheschoolpsychologyprofessioncancontributetodevelopinganddisseminatingevidence-basedinterventions(EBIs).Kratochwill&Shernoff(2004)discussesfiveassumptionspresentedtohelptheTaskForcedealwithintegratingEBIsinpractice.Whereinformationisspecified,interventionrequiresanevidence-basedapproach.RTIcanbeusedmorewidelyacrosslearninginstitutionsasaproblem-solvingmethodthatshapesinstructionandinfluencesinterventionchoices,suitabilityforspecialeducationprograms,andspecialeducationprograms(Batscheetal.,2006).AlthoughmanyschoolshaveappliedtheRTIapproachduetoIDEA2004regulations,itisclearamongthepractitionersthattheimplementationofRTIwilltakesometimeandrequireongoingprofessionaldevelopmentofschoolteachersandpsychologistsatalllevelsofRTItoeffectivelyservelearners.3TierResponsetoInterventionTierOneGenerally,allstudentsareparticipantsonthislevel.Thestudentsareprovidedaccesstoastandard-basedcurriculumimplementedwithinstruction.Italsoincludesdifferentiatedevidence-basedlearningmodeledtoindividualstudentneeds.Instructionsarebasedonthedatacollectedandreviewed.WhenTieroneiscarriedoutinthisway,about80%ofstudentswillbeeligibleforthegeneraleducationclassroom.Thus,itwillreducethenumberofchildrenreferredandplacedinspecialeducationclassrooms.TierTwoTierTwoiscenteredonneeds-basedlearning.IfastudenthasnotsuccessfullyrespondedtoTierOne,thestudentsaremovedtoTierTwo.Studentsareofferedastandardinterventionprotocolthatfocusesontheirspecificacademicorbehavioralchallengesonthistier.Thesestudentsareselectedusinguniversalscreeningdata,stateassessmentdata,comprehensiveassessmentdata,andTierOneassessmentdata.Afundamentalpartofthistieristheprogressmonitoringprocess.Progressismonitoredtoanalyzethestudent\'sresponsetotheintervention,anddecisionsaremadebasedonthestudent\'sresponse.WhenTierTwoiscarriedoutinthismanner,manystudentswillbeeligibleforthegeneraleducationclassroom.TierThreeTierthreeentailssteadyandaccuratedeliveryofanintervention.Theinterventionmaybeveryintense.Atthislevel,theRTIprocessismoreindividualizedanddiagnostic.Theschoolteachersoftenrequestcounty-levelspecialiststojointheproblem-solvingteam.Todiscoverthereasonswhythestudentsarenotperformingasexpected,theymayusescientificanalysis.CarefulanalysisinthistierhelpsmoststudentsmovebacktoTierOneorTierTwo.Thedecisionismadeafterclosemonitoringoftheprogress.Duringtheintervention,studentswhorespondsuccessfullystarttoreceivelessandlessintervention.Moreandmoreinstructionsaregiventostudentswhodonotrespondsuccessfullytotheintervention.However,ifthestudentsarestillunresponsiveatthislevel,theRTIteamhastocometogetheranddecideifareferralisneededforspecializedinstruction.SpecialEducationServicesThislevelinvolvesspecialprogramplacementforstudentsinneedofadditionalsupport.Thistierinvolvesspecialeducationandgiftededucationservices.Theservicescanbeofferedinageneralclassroomsettingoradifferentsetting.TierFourisforstudentsthatwe\'reunabletorespondtothepreviousthreetiers.Thesekindsofstudentsrequireadditionalsupportandmeeteligibilitycriteriaforspecialprogramplacement.Thestudentsaresuitableforgiftedlearningandspecialeducation.Becauseofthetiersinplacebeforespecializedservices,morestrugglingstudentswillbesuccessfulandwillnotneedtheinterventiononthistier.Tierfouroffersinstructionsforstudentswithdisabilitiesandneedspecialeducationandrelatedservices.Ifadeterminationhasbeenmadestatingthatachildhasadisability,theschoolsystemdoesnotrequireadditionaldocumentationforpriorinterventions.HistoryofSchoolPsychologyTherehasbeenasignificantchangeinhowpeopleviewchildren\'seducationinthelate19thandearly29thcenturies(Fagan,1992).Inthepast,Schoolpsychologyhadamixtureofvariousdisciplines.Beingaguidancecounselorwasanaddedadvantagetoexistingcredentials.Concurrently,inthe19thcentury,therewasanemergenceofcompulsoryeducationintheUnitedStatesthatbroughtaboutchallengessuchaspoorandworking-classchildren\'splight.Thisresultedintheenactmentofchildlaborlawsthatpavedthewayforthebeginningofschoolpsychology(Merrelletal.,2006).Intime,theschoolsystemexpanded,andstrongerlawsconcerningspecialeducationwereintroduced.Lawsthataddressedcompulsoryeducationsignificantlychangedpubliceducationbetween1830and1930(Fagan,1992).Theysawtheneedforpsychologicalservicesforchildreninschool(Fagan,1992).Thechildrenneededexpertstoidentifyandaddresstheunanticipatedandundiagnoseddisordersinthem.Inthe20thcentury,childrenwereconsideredvulnerableandinneedofprotection.Therewasanincreaseindemandforeducationservicesforchildreninneedofspecialeducation.Hence,therewasaneedtooffertrainingbeyondjustteaching(Eisner,1963).From1817tothebeginningoftheCivilWar,manyresidentialschoolsfordisabledandorphanedstudentswerestartedinvariousstates(Kirk,Gallagher,&Anastasiow,1993).Before1850,therewerecountablepublicschoolsthatprovidedspecialeducationtochildrenandadultswithspecialneeds(Kirketal.).Schoolsbroughtaboutawarenessofindividualdifferencesamongchildren(Herron,Green,Guild,Smith,&Kantor,1970).Thefirstchildrentobeplacedinspecialclasseswerecognitivelyimpaired.Theclasseswerefundedbystateboardsofeducationandhadpsychologistswhodidapsychologicalexamination.Theemphasisonprovidingspecialeducationandhealthservicesforstudentsinneedincreasedduringthelate1890sthroughtothe1900s(Merrelletal.,2006).In1899,WilliamHealeyestablishedaclinicfortheChicagojuvenilecourtinthepublicchoolsystem.In1910,mentalclinicswereestablishedwiththesolepurposeofeliminatingjuveniledelinquency.Thispavesthewayfortoday\'sprogramsforstudentshavingemotionalandbehavioralissues(Merrelletal.,2006).LightnerWitmercameupwiththeconceptofinstructioninpsychologytobeusedtomeettheteacher\'sneeds.Hisconceptfocusedonindividualandpsychologicalprinciplesofindividualrelationships.Theprocessexaminedusualchildhoodbehaviorsanddeviationsthatwerehighlydependentonobservingandanalyzingthoseobservations(Fagan,1992).Later,G.StanelryHallestablishedthechildstudymovementthatshapedthemodernschoolofpsychology.Heestablishedaclinicalfacilitythatprovidedservicestotheadministrators,teachers,andparents.Hallusedchildstudyquestionnairesthathighlightthecommonissueswithschoolsandschooling,whileWitmer\'sserviceswerefocusedonindividualchildren(Fagan,1992).Schoolpsychologyisaimedatusingpsychologytohelpteacherswithinstructions.WilliamJamesopposedthisconcept.Hebelievedthatpsychologistscouldnotdictatehowteacherseducatetheirstudents.Hewasnotawarethatteacherscouldbepart-timepsychologistsorscientists,whichwouldhindertheirperformance.(Berliner,1993).Hedidnotagreewiththeopinionthatteacherscouldapplysciencetorealsituations.Jamesstatedthatschoolpsychologyintheschoolsisimportantinthefollowingways:toprovideprinciplesaboutthefoundationsofinstruction,toprecludeteachersfrommakingappallingmistakes,andofferintellectualsupporttoteachersinmakingacademicdecisions(Berliner,1993).Schoolpsychologywasestablishedinresponsetothelackofspecialeducationservicesforchildrendifferentfrommoststudents.Schoolswerestartingtobechild-centered;hence,therewasaneedforindividualizedservicestohelpaddressdifferencesinlearning(Herronetal.,1970).Recognitionofthedifferencesinstudentswasdonethroughcreatingawarenessforindividualizedandspecialeducationservices.SchoolboardsintheU.S.startedemployingschoolpsychologiststoofferservicesforspecialeducationstudents.Asschoolpsychologists\'demandstartedtoincrease,therewasaneedtodefineschoolpsychology\'sdutiesanddescriptions.TheRoleofSchoolPsychologistsTheSchoolPsychologists\'roleintheRTImodelincludesdevelopinginterventionsforstudents,screeningtoidentifyissuesearlyenough,monitoringprogress,offeringprofessionaldevelopmentfortutors,andtakingleadershiprolestosupporttheimplementationofRTIatasystemlevel.SchoolpsychologistsplayasignificantroleinRTIteamsastheyinterpretdataandhelpgeneralandspecialeducationteachersmakeproperdecisionsfromthedata(Aspirantietal.,2019)Thetraditionalroleofaschoolpsychologististhatitisa\'tester.\'However,theRTImodelhasaroleofschoolpsychologistsinclude;consulting,offeringcounseling,directandindirectinvolvementinpreventionandinterventionprogrammingforindividualsorgroupsofstudents,andofferingsupporttoschoolstaffthroughthedata-baseddecisionmakingandprogressmonitoring(McIntoshetal.,2010).Schoolpsychologistshavetheskillstoinvestigate,identify,andanalyzevariousapproachsystemsthatcanhelpaddressstudents\'needsinspecificareasofacademicsorbehaviorusinganRTImodel(Canter,2006).Theyaretrainedtounderstandandknowwhatastudentneedsandprovideappropriateevidence-basedinterventiontoaddressthestudents\'academicandbehavioralneeds(Canter,2006).Furthermore,schoolpsychologistsareregardedasleadersconcerningmentalhealthassessment,home-schoolcollaboration,andschool-agencycollaboration.TheyformpartofthespecialeducationandinterventionteamthatplaysacriticalroleinimplementinganRTImodelwithinaschool(Burns&RileyTillman,2009;McIntoshetal.,2010).TheyalsohelptheparentsunderstandtheRTImodelanditsimpactontheirchild(Canter,2006).Schoolpsychologists\'primaryfunctionsincludeimprovingcognitiveandacademicabilities,promotingmentalhealthandlifecompetencies,data-baseddecisionmaking,andsystems-basedservices(Ysseldykeetal.,2006).Consequently,therearevariousspecificactivitiesavailableforschoolpsychologistswithinthethree-tieredRTImodel.Besides,assessment,theimplementationofintegrity,andfacilitatingateameffortbetweenhome,school,andcommunityagenciesaresignificantrolesschoolpsychologistsserveacrossthethreetiers.TheSchoolpsychology\'sinvolvementbeginsinTier1,wherebytheycanvolunteertobepartofthedistrictcurriculumcommittees.TheschoolpsychologististaskedwithfindingreadingcurriculaandprogramsthatareatparwiththeNationalResearchCouncilrecommendations.Theyareallowedtoconsultindividualteachersontheplanning,managing,anddeliveringinstructions;thisensuresthattheteachersgivequalityinstructionstothestudents.Generally,aschoolpsychologist\'sroleinTier1istoofferconsultationconcerningtheassessmentsystem.AccordingtoFuchs(2003),assessmentisfundamentalandisthefoundationofRTItodetermineitssuccess.Therefore,schoolpsychologistsneedtohelptheteachersandadministratorschoosetoolsthatwillgivereliableandvalidinformation.InTier2,aschoolpsychologist\'sprimaryroleisthesameasthatofTier1.Theschoolpsychologistoffersassessmentsandhelpsinmakingdata-baseddecisions.Schoolpsychologistsshouldbewell-informedofthedifferentassessmentsystemsandknowwhichapproachwouldsuitparticularpopulationsanduses.Whenastudentisclassifiedasastrugglingreader,theschoolpsychologistshouldconsultwiththeteachersorconductanassessmenttoidentifyareasthatrequireintervention.InTier3,schoolpsychologistsaddresslearningdifficultiesforindividualstudents.Toeffectivelydothis,schoolpsychologistsmustbewellinformedaboutproblem-solvingprocessesandintensiveinterventionsforindividuallearners.Theyshouldhavesufficientknowledgeinassessmentandproblem-solvingsystemsfromwhichinterventionscouldbederived.However,schoolsunderutilizetheexpertisethataschoolpsychologistcanofferintheRTIprocess.Schoolpsychologistsaretrainedtoofferassessment,intervention,andconsultation;thishelpsintheRTIprocess.Althoughschoolpsychologistshavediversetraining,theyfocusmoreoneligibility-relatedassessmentactivitiesandlesstimeoninterventionandconsultation.Aschoolpsychologistislikelytooffermoreiftheirroleisdividedintoequalpartsassessment,intervention,andconsultation(Aspirantietal.,2019)Therehasbeenagrowingworryamongtheteachersandschoolpsychologistsonhowaproblem-solvingapproachsuchasRTImayaffecttheirroles.Traditionally,theroleofapsychologisthasmainlybeenthatofapsychometric.However,inrecentyears,aschoolpsychologistisviewedasaproblem-solver.Theymustjointheirunderstandingofpsychologyandeducationtoofferthebestservicestothestudents.Schoolpsychologistsapplytheirstrengthsincollaboration,consultation,andinterventions.Theyareworkinginenvironmentsthatallowthemtoofferawidervarietyofservicesthatwillbemoremeaningfultostudents.Schoolpsychologistsnowpartakeinensuringacademiccompetenceandofferingsocialandemotionalsupport(Little,2013).However,theroleofaschoolpsychologistinRTIisnotproperlydefined.Aschoolpsychologist\'srolehasbeenalteredfromapredominantlypsychometriciantoanactiveproblem-solver.Thiswillrequiretheschoolpsychologiststobereadyforchangeandadditionaltraining(Little,2013).TrainingandAccreditationImplicationsforSchoolPsychologistsinRTITheearliestresearchonschoolpsychologists\'rolesandfunctionswasdonebyJohnEdwardWallaceWallin(1876-1969)(Fagan,1992).Wallinevaluatedthetrainingandefficiencyofschoolpsychologists.Inhisfindings,theparticipantswerenotwelltrainedandwereprovidingalimitedamountofservices.Mostparticipantswereofferingtestingservicestoplacechildrenineducationalgroups.SchoolpsychologistsmaynotpossesstherequiredskillstofulfilltheRTImodeldemands,suchasproblem-solvingskills,consultation,anddevelopingsystemsforimplementation(Reschly,1996).Rolerestrictionisalsoaresultofthereluctancebyindividualschoolpsychologiststoaltertraditionalservices.SuccessfulschoolpsychologymustbewillingandreadytomakechangestotheirtraditionalrolestoprovidethekindofservicesdemandedundertheRTImodel.Inmoststates,individualswhohavenoteachercertificationcanacquirethecredentialsinschoolpsychology.Theyareonlyrequiredtohaveadditionalcourseworkthatwillprovideknowledgeoneducationcurriculum,schoolorganization,andtheopportunitytoobserveintheclassroom.Schoolpsychologistswhoaregiventrainingduringthepre-RTIperiodshouldbewillingtopartakeincontinuingprofessionaldevelopmenttodevelopmethodsandstrategiesneededtoimplementRTIsuccessfully.Standardsforschoolpsychologistsmustbeabroadservicedeliverymodelthatcatrstoallstakeholders\'needs.Schoolpsychologistsarerequiredtohavegoodcommunicationskillsandbeabletorelatewellwithothers.Theymustalsohaveskillsthatassistinsystemanalysisandsystemchange.Althoughtherehavebeensomechangesinschoolpsychologytrainingprograms,veryfewprogramsarechangingtofitschoolpsychologists\'newdemands(Curtis&Batsche,1991).Trainingprogramsneedtopromoteassessmentprocessesthatdirecttheevaluationofinterventions,theproblem-solvingprocess,andstudents\'needsoutsidetheclassroom.ThebeliefisthattheRTImodelwillprogresstogetherwithschoolpsychologisttraining.Professionaldevelopmentwillincludetheevaluationprocessofscientificresearched-basedinstructionevidence-based(Hawkinsetal.,2008).SchoolPsychologists\'PerceptionsofStakeholderEngagementaboutInterventionAccordingtoasurveydonebyLittle(2013),mostschoolpsychologistssaidtheywerewillingtosupporttheimplementationofRTIintheirschools.Afewschoolpsychologistsfeltthattheywerenotanessentialpartoftheirschools\'RTIteam.TheoutcomeshowedthateventhoughschoolpsychologistsareskilledandabletoparticipateintheRTIprocess,theydoubtiftheyareanimportantpartoftheimplementationprocess.TheskillsacquiredbyschoolpsychologistsmakethemveryessentialintheimplementationofRTI.AccordingtoCanter(2006),schoolpsychologistscancontributemuchtotheimplementationofRTI,buttheyneedtobeopentochangeandadditionaltraining.RTIimplementationcomeswithadditionalsignificantchangesintheroleofschoolpsychologists.Thechangeswillincludemoredatacollectionandanalysisandlesstraditionalassessment.Inthesurvey,abouthalfofgeneralteachersandspecialteachersareinvolvedinimplementingRTI.Further,therespondentsstatedthataboutathirdofschoolcounselors,schooladministrators,andspecialeducationdirectorstookpartinimplementingRTI.Thisshowsaneedforfurtherprofessionaldevelopment,includingtrainingoncollaborativeteaming,forallstakeholders.ResearchRelatedtoSchoolPsychologistsAccordingtoasurveyconductedbyHospandReschly(2002),schoolpsychologistsstatedtheyspentatleasthalfoftheirtimeoneligibility-relatedactivities.Thestudyshowedadifferencebetweenwhatschoolpsychologistswouldwanttodoandwhattheyaredoing.Theyalsofacedachallengeregardinghowothersperceivethefieldofschoolpsychologyandtheschoolpsychologist\'srole(Hosp&Reschly,2002).Theschoolpsychologistswerealsonotconfidentthattheyhadtheskillsneededtoprovidequalityservicestostudents,staff,andparents.However,someofthemviewedschoolpsychologistsasthemostequippedpersontoleadtheimplementationofRTIbecausetheyhadbeentrainedonassessment.AccordingtoasurveybyReschly(1996),theresearchstudyonschoolpsychologists\'rolepreferenceshasconstantlyshownpreferencesformoretimeusageinproblem-solvingconsultationanddirectinterventions,withtimededicatedtoassessmenttodetermineeligibilityreducedto25-30%oftherole(Reschly,1996).Accordingtoresearchconducted,thegreatestchallengeandbenefitofRTIinschoolsdependsonitsimplementation.AccordingtoLose(2008),theimplementationandsustenanceofanRTIinitiativeistheschool\'sinstructionalleader\'srole.SuccessfulimplementationoftheRTIprocesslargelydependsontheleadershippractices.Supportfromtheadministrationandtheschoolpsychologistsisimportantforsuccessfulimplementation.TheadministrativebehaviordetermineswhetheranRTIwillsucceedorfailandincreaseordecreasespecialeducationreferrals.However,inresearchcarriedoutbyRafothandForiska(2006),itseemsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenadministrativesupportandeffectiveteams.TheyassertthatleadershipbehaviorsdonotaffectthedriveandimplementationofRTI;itistheschool\'sprinciplesthatdetermineasuccessfulimplementation.LeadershipisnotinanywaylinkedtoRTI,whetherpositivelyornegatively.SummaryRTIhasbecomeanimportantpartoftheschoolcommunitythroughoutthenationregardlessofwhetheritwasimplementedatthenational,state,orsystemlevel.Nationalguidelinesmaybedifferentcomparedtostateorcountyguidelines.However,itistheimplementationthatdeterminestheeffectsonindividualstudents.Effectiveimplementationwillresultinapositiveimpactonindividualstudents(McCook,2007).NumerousresearchershaveconductedstudiestoshowthesignificanceofRTIinvariousways.RTIisadevelopingsectionofthedecision-makingprocessconcerningstudents.AlthoughtheimplementationofRTImayvaryfromonestatetoanother,theimpactofRTAonthesuccessratehighlydependsontheappropriateinterventionsofferedtostudentsidentifiedasat-riskbeforebeingreferredtospecialeducation(McCook,2007).Henceitissignificanttoanalyzetheroleplayedbyschoolpsychologistsinensuringallstudentsaccesseducation.Chapter4:ResultsandDiscussionThethematicanalysisoftheliteraturereviewrevealedvariousthemesrelatedtoschoolpsychologists\'roleinthepre-referralscreening.Thefirstthemeisschoolleadership\'sroleingivingchildrenprotectionwhenevertheyfacedifficultyinacademicprogressorsocialchallengeswithinschoolpsychologyboundaries.Thesecondtheme,whichistherealizationofschoolpsychologistsasleaderswhohelpassesschildren\'smentalproblemsstudyingwithintheinstitute,isalsorelatedtothefirsttheme.Therefore,bothofthesethemeswouldbediscussedheresidebyside.Thethematicanalysisoftheliteraturereviewshelpsunderstandthatschoolpsychologistsusetoolsandinterventionstorefertothespecialeducationprogram.Theyhaveproblem-solvingskillsthathelpthemmakecorrectdecisionsaboutwhichchildneedsschoolinterventionandwhichchildshouldbereferredtothespecialeducationprogram.Ithasbeenwidelyreportedthatschoolpsychologists\'primeroleisonlyrestrictedtoprovidingmentalhealthservicestothestudentswhofaceproblemswiththeircognitiveskills,eitherinclassroutineactivities,socialskills,orperformingwellacademically.50%oftheirworkthroughouttheweekhasbeenidentifiedasprovidingconsultationtotheschoolstaffandworkingwiththeirteamsformakingsocial-emotionalassessmentsforthechildren(Splettetal.,2019).Theschoolpsychologyandthebestpracticesdevisedforrevealingthechildrenwhofacehardshipsemotionally,socially,andeveninseriouscases,mentally,theschoolpsychologistshavetoensurethatsuchstudentsgainuniversalaccesstothehealthcareservicesandpractices.InRTI,theinterventionprogramsareformulatedwiththeschoolstaff,parents,andschoolpsychologists\'collaborativeeffortstogivetheneedychildrenthebestassistance.Additionally,leadershipskillsareinherentinschoolpsychologists\'roles.Withouttheirinput,theschoolstaffandparentswouldnotcategorizethestudent\'sspecialneedsordifficultiestheymightbefacingintheclassofsociety.Schoolpsychologistsareequippedwithbestpractices\'knowledgethathelpspreventmentalhealthconcerns.Theybuiltonthisawarenesstheplansandmakeevaluationsforappropriatedata-baseddecisions.Theirconsultationandassessmentskillsforthepre-referralprocessarerequiredforstructuringdata-teams,makingevaluations,andaddressingthecrisisontime.Theschoolpsychologistsdotherelationship-buildingamongtheschoolstaff,students,andtheirparentssincetheytransformtheuniquesituationsforachievingasetgoal(Burnsetal.,2017).Itisbelievedthatatrainedandexpertschoolpsychologistwhohelpsinimplementinganinnovativeendeavor,forexample,conceivinganinterventionforthepre-referralscreeningandbuildingpartnershipthroughteamwork,wouldmotsprobablymakeuseoftransformationalleadership.Thepsychologisthastheprofessionalauthorityandresourceforbringingchangewithintheschoolsystembasedonthesharedvisionandforeseeingthedesiredgoals.ThethirdthemeistheaccreditationoftheschoolpsychologistsasamajorstakeholderintheRTIprocess.SincethedistinctionofRTIismadeonthedistrict,state,andindividualschoollevel,schoolpsychologists\'stakeholderroleisvitalinmakingtheresponsetointerventionstrategies(Little,2013).Theengagementofallstakeholders,includingtheschoolpsychologists,isnecessarytomaketheRTIprogrameffectiveforthestudentsinneed.Itssuccessfulimplementationisonlyguaranteediftheschoolpsychologists\'leadershipisactivelylinkedwiththeirengagementintheprocess.Asa\'systemsapproach\'issuggestedforbringingeffectualityintheRTIprocessandhavingpositiveresultsfromit,theinvolvementofallstakeholderswheretheschoolpsychologistsholdafundamentalplaceshouldbeobservedinthestepslikethearticulationofproceduresforthepre-referralscreening,makingsurethatallresourcesareinplace,high-qualityinterventionsandtheirapplicationisfacilitated,andcontinuousprofessionalgrowth.Intraditionalschoolpsychology,schoolpsychologistscouldimplementthebespracticessothattheirinnovativebehavioralinterventionsbringfruitfulresultsforthestudents.Theassessmenttechniquestheywouldusetogaineachchildshouldbeconsideredsinceeachchildbelongstoadiverseethnicbackgroundandhashisowndivergentsocialandemotionalrequirements.Schoolstaffandparentsmightlikelybemissingtheareasthatthechildneedsattentionforsincetheydonotpossessthepsychologicaldetectionskillsthattheschoolpsychologistshave.Itwouldonlybepossiblewithschoolpsychologists\'aidandconsideredamajorstakeholderintheRTIprocess.Thefourthandfifththemesareinter-relatedsinceaparticularculturalbiashasbeenobservedonschoolpsychologistswhenidentifyingstudentsforthespecialeducationprogram.Inthefifththeme,whichisabouttheassessmenttoolsandproceduresfortheminoritystudentsbasedontheircultureandlanguagediversities,theschoolpsychologists\'sufficientrolehasnotbeenwitnessed.Thespecificationofthesethemeshasbeenmadesothatschoolpsychologists\'roleenhancementcouldbesuggestedandtrainingandprofessionaldevelopmentopportunities.Schoolpsychologistsaretrainedaccordingtocertainstateprofessionalethicsguidelinessothattheirassessmentsarefreefrombiasrelatedtosexualdifferences,age,gender,culturalorsocioeconomicdifferences.However,astudyin1997wasconductedinwhichmorethan150psychologistsfromeightstatesweresurveyed.Theresultsshowedthat70%oftherespondentsdeclaredthattheyhadtraininginbilingualassessmentbutwerenotrelevanttoculturalissues;therefore,manystudentswereconfirmedLEPstudents.Itisdeducedthatschoolpsychologistsweretrainedonmerelythreefactors:secondlanguageacquisitionanditspertinentfactors,bilingualassessmentrelatedtopsycho-educationalevaluations,andskillstointerpretthoseresults.EventheculturalbiastestingcaseofHobonvs.Hansenin1967denotedthatmanyAfricanAmericanchildrenwereplacedinlower-levelclassesduetothegroup-administeredtestsforallstudentsequally(Fagan&Wise,2007,p.113).Itisrecognizedwithothersimilarstudiesthatschoolpsychologists\'trainingbasedontheirculturaldiversityshouldbegivenhighweightage.Recently,thetrendhaschangedwheremorecollegesanduniversitiesareofferingtrainingforpsychologistsinbilingualassessmentswithculturalawareness.Still,thesamepracticeshouldbeadoptedbytheschoolwherethesepsychologistsarehiredtomakeevaluationsofculturallydiversestudentssothatno\'one\'studentsarefalselyputinthespecialeducationprogram.Incontrast,hispsychologicalneeds\'wrongguesstimateduetohisculturalfactorsshouldbeaddressedwithsimple,modifiedinterventions.Sincediversity-basedschoolshireexpertpsychologists,theyareincapableofimplementingstrategiesthatreflectthestudents\'cultural,racial,andethniccharacteristics.Students\'interventionsinsuchschoolsarehomogenous,andtheireffectivenessisnotaccuratesincethedemographictraitsareexcludedfortheminorities(Shernoff,Bearman&Kratochwill,2017).Schoolpersonneltrainingshouldbeconsideredanimportantcomponentintrainingsothatculturalcompetenceshouldbetaughttothestaff,includingschoolpsychologists.Anotherperspectiveoftheprevalenceofthisissueinthethematicanalysisthatformsobstaclesinanexhaustiveschoolpsychologists\'roleinthepre-referralprocessisthestandardizedtestingusedtoassessdiverselyethnicstudents.Standardizedtestingdeliversdangertominoritystudentssincetheyhavelittlerepresentationofthisethnicity.Thestudentsarenotgiventeststhatshouldbebasedontheirculturalinterestsandneeds.Researchhasconfirmedthatsuingstandardizedtestsforculturallyandlinguisticallydiverse(CLD)studentsisaproblem(Villegas-Gutierrez,2015,p.20).Itisexplainedinthesamereportthatitwouldbeunethicalforsuchstudentstoqualifyforspecialeducationorinterventionalcurriculumprogramswiththenormsusedforotherstudents.Theyhavetheirownrespectiveneeds,andthetestswouldprovebiasedforthem.Rather,themulticulturalassessmenttechniqueshouldbeused,whichencapsulatesseveralsocial/emotionalandbehavioralevaluationmethodsforaccuratelypointingoutthechild\'sstrengthsandweaknessesinthementionedareas.ItwouldbefreefromdiscriminationagainstcertainracesandculturestoproduceauthenticratingsandscoresforchildrenforallocatingthemtotheRTIprograms.Chapter5:ConclusionandRecommendationsAfterthethematicanalysisoftheliteraturereview,itisreasonedthatschoolpsychologists\'roleinthesaidprocessisindispensable.However,thesecondaryresearchthemesshowedcertainrolesthataschoolpsychologistplaysormustplay.Thethemesshowedthattheschoolpsychologistsplaytheroleofaleadersinceheistheonewhoputshisskillfulknowledgeindesigningandconductingassessmentsforthestudentstodistinguishthosewhoshouldbeadmittedtothespecialeducationprogram.Hehassuitableassessmenttoolsandawarenessaboutthestudents\'socialandemotionalneeds.Heknowsthatiftheseneedsarenotmet,thestudentsmightunderperformintheiracademicyear.Also,withouthissupport,thepre-referralprogramanditseffectiveresultswouldnothavebeenpossible.Histransformativeleadership,whichinfusesavisionarystandpointformeetingtheschoolpsychologygoals,supportstheteams\'collaborativeeffortsinthepre-referralprocesstothenextlevel.Heisanintegralpartoftheseteamssince,withouttheschoolstaffandtheparents\'inputs,hewouldnotassessthestudents\'specialneeds.Hence,hemustbeconsideredasanaccreditedstakeholderintheRTIprocess.Onemorethemeidentifiedthroughthethematicanalysiswasanissuefacedbytheschoolpsychologistscausingahindranceinseemlyexecutionoftheirroleinthepre-referralprocess.Thiscouldbetakenasaconcern,andfurthersuggestionsarepresentedinthecurrentsection.Thethematicanalysisalsoshowedthattheschoolpsychologistsfacedafewissues.Iftheseissuesareresolved,schoolpsychologists\'rolewouldbeenhancedsothatinculcationofthebestpracticescouldbeensuredinthepre-referralscreening.Itisalsoimportanttoresolvetheseissuessothattheprofessionaldevelopmentofschoolpsychologists\'rolecouldbefulfilledandenhancementintheirtaskaccomplishmentconcerningthepre-referralprocesscouldbecertified.Theissuesobservedwereespeciallyrelatedtoculturalandlinguisticdiscrimination,psychologists\'training,andculturalinsensitivenesswithintheassessments.Thisresearchsuggeststhattheseissuesshouldberesolvedassoonaspossiblesothatpre-referralscreeningbecomeseasierforschoolpsychologists.Incurrenttimeswhentechnologyhasmadeprocessesspacious,itisimperativetoequipthepsychologistswiththelatesttoolsandmechanismssothattransparentassessmentscouldbemadeforallthechildren.However,itbecomesimportantfortheculturallydiversestudentstobeappraisedwithspeciallyadaptedassessmenttechniquessothattheirsocial,emotional,andpsychologicalneedsareweighedbetter.Recommendationforreducingbiasednessorimpartialityinthepre-referralscreeningcouldbereducedbyfocusingmoreonalternativeassessmentproceduresinclusiveofinformalmethodsofassessingculturalandlinguisticallydiverse(CLD)students.Itwouldhelpindetailedscrutinizingtheirdynamicneedssincetheassessmentmeasureswouldbecredibleinnondiscrimination.Moreover,itcouldaddparametersthatdescribewhattasksthestudentscanfulfillinsteadofmentioningthosetheylack.Thecurriculum-basedassessmentsshouldoutlinetheirlinguisticsstylessothatfurtherinterventions,especiallyinTier2,couldbedesignedaccordingly.Thealternativeassessmentmethodcouldusebilingualassessmentforlinguisticallydiversestudentssinceitwouldbeanewapproach,apartfromthestandardizedassessment.Thiswouldparticularlyemphasizetheareaswherethestudentsspeakingotherlanguagesareweakandneedmorehardwork.TheRTIprocesswouldsketchthecurriculuminterventionfortheclassroominstructionsforsuchlinguisticallyweakstudentstoacquirebetterteachingadministration.Forthispurpose,evenifclassteachers\'trainingisrequired,itcouldbecateredtoaswellsothathandlinglinguisticallydiversestudentsbecomesfacilitative.RecommendationforclassinsensitivitytowardsethnicallydiversestudentscouldbebasedontheadditionalrecommendedbestpracticesfortheinclusionofCLDevaluations(Villegas-Gutierrez,2015,p.43).Thesebestpracticesmentionthatformalandinformalassessmentsshouldbeconductedinthestudent\'sproficientlanguageandEnglish.Itwouldbebeneficialforculturallyandlinguisticallydiverse(CLD)studentssincetheirinterpretationandunderstandingwouldbebettergaugedinthisway.AlthoughtheassessmentsforCLDstudentswouldtaketwotothreetimesmoretimetocompletesothatallthefactorsshouldbecountedin,theirsocioculturalimpactonlearningwouldbematerializedthroughthespeciallydesignedassessments.Inthismanner,thehomogenouspre-referralscreeningmethodwouldnotovershadowtheirabilitiesandleadtotheiroverplacementinthespecialeducationprogram,whichwasthemainconcernofAfricanAmericanparentsinmanyinstanceswithintheUnitedStates.Recommendationforeffectivetrainingoftheschoolpsychologistsforunerringandbias-freepre-referralscreeningcouldbethedistrict-wideprofessionaldevelopmentinalignmentwiththestate\'sculturalcompetencestandards.Itisknownthatpsychologistsreceivethestandardcurriculumandteachingprocedureswithintheirclassroomsettings;though,itisthetrainingthatshapestheirthoughts.Theywouldmakeuseofassessmenttechniquesforculturallydiversestudents.Theinfluentialthoughtprogramisonlypossiblethrougheffectivetrainingwheregender,socialandracialfactorscouldbeinfusedwithintheirtraining.Theuniqueblendofthetrainingprogramwiththesecharacteristicscouldentirelychangetheirperceptiontowardstheworld\'schildrenwhohavedemandingconditions.Theirprofessionalexperienceshouldbefashionedinlinewiththestaterequirementsandthedistinctneedsoftheculturallyandlinguisticallydiversestudentsateachgradelevel.Further,thecollaborationwiththecommunitymembersinhighereducationwouldsupportgainingadeepinsightintotheculturalcompetencetrainingprogramsofferedwithinthedistrictsothatpre-referralscreeningbecomesapplicableinthelocalcontext.Thereareafewlimitationsandstrengthsinthisresearch.Thestrengthsincludetheuseofthematicanalysisthatprovidedflexibilityinderivingthemesfromtheliteraturereview.Asthestudiesincludedinthereviewbelongedtodifferentmethodologicalbackgrounds,theflexibilityinextractingthemesprovidesadeepengagementwiththesecondarydata.Thecoherenceandconsistencyweremadeinpullingoutthethemesfromthedatatoremainclosetoansweringtheresearchquestion.Inadditiontothat,theinclusionofbotholdandnewstudiesintheliteraturereviewpresentedanoverviewofthechangeofperspectivesrelatedtoschoolpsychologists\'role.Achangedoesn\'tneedtooccurovertimesincethestudiesfromolderyearsshowedthattheystillfacetheschoolpsychologists\'issuesinolderdaysincurrenttimes.Anexampleofthisistheoverorunder-representationofdifferentethnicbackgroundsstudents,particularlyAfricanAmericans.Thisissueledtothefactthatschoolpsychologists\'roleiscrucialindetectingtheaccuratenumberofpre-referralscreeningstudentsbasedonbestpractices.Thelimitationsofthecurrentstudy\'sscopingreviewincludetheinclusionofmanystudies,regardlessoftheirmethods,designs,andassessmenttechniques.Thereisaneedforalargeteamwhosememberswouldfulfilltheneedtoscrutinizemanystudiesforthescopingreviewtokeepthestudycredibleandreliable.However,thiswasnotthecaseinthisresearch.Itshouldstillbenotedthatitdoesnotmeanthatthestudyisnotcredibleorreliablesincecertainmeasureshavebeentakentoextractthestudiesfromthementioneddatabases.Also,theinclusionofstudiesevenolderthantheyear2000indicatesthattheresearchisnotcurrent.Thisissueisstilltakencareofinthewaythatafewofthemwereincluded.Itshouldbetakenheedthattheolderstudies\'must-inclusionwasmadesincetheywerereflectiveoftheresearchquestionandwereconsideredhelpfulinbeingrelevanttothisstudy\'ssecondaryresearch.Theliteraturereviewconductedtoscopereviewreflectedanoverviewoftheresearchquestionandnotasynthesizedresultinitself.Forthispurpose,athematicanalysiswasusedforobtainingthemesoutofthemaximumnumberofstudiestaughtinthereview.Thisresearch\'sfutureimplicationsareeradicatingschoolpsychologists\'issuesinthepre-referralscreeningorRTIprocess.Theissueofstandardizedtestingforminoritystudentsshouldbeeliminatedforbetterassessmenttechniquesfordiverseethnicstudents.Thesestudents\'culturalandlanguagebarrierswouldalsobeminimizedtobetteradapttothepre-referralscreeningtestingstyles.Eventheimplicationsofthisstudycouldextendtothepolicy-makingofthelocal,district,orstatelevelschools\';thesethreelevels\'bestpracticescouldbealteredaccordingtothebettertestingtoolsfortheculturallyandlinguisticallydiverse(CLD)students.Therewasasee=minglylackofbestpracticesfromthedistrictorstatelevelgovernmentthatshouldprovideforCLDstudents\'assessments.Thus,itdirectedtheschoolpsychologiststohelplesslyusetraditionalbestpracticesthatweremissingamajorpartofthepre-referralprocess.Thegovernmentsofallthreelevelswouldindulgeindevisingstrategiesthatcouldbetterservetheschoolpsychologistssothatasetofrulesandbestpracticescouldbedesignedforthem.Thesenewlydesignedbestpracticeswouldhelptheschoolpsychologistsextensivelyimprovethestudents\'measuring.Theissueofoverandundertheplacementofdiverselyethnicstudentscouldbeexterminated.Likewise,thefutureimplicationswouldassistinthetrainingofschoolpsychologists.Thetrainingsessionscouldbeorganizedwithintheschoolorinotherstate-designatedlocations.Thetrainingsessionswouldascertainthatschoolpsychologistsareequippedwiththeupgradedmethodsusedforgaugingthestudentsthatbelongtodiversebackgrounds.IfcurrentlydevelopedassessmentpracticesformeasuringthesocialandemotionalneedsofCLDstudentsareprovidedtotheschoolpsychologists,theirroleenhancementinbeinganinfluentialstakeholderandleaderinthepre-referralscreeningandRTIwouldbewarranted.AnnotatedBibliographyBatsche,G.M.,Eliott,J.,Graden,J.L.,Grimes,J.Kovaleski,J.F.,Prasse,D.,&Tilly,W.D.(2005).Responsetointervention:Policyconsiderationsandimplementation.Alexandria,VA:NationalAssociationofStateDirectorsofSpecialEducation,Inc.Thestudy\'sgoalistoassessthelevelofinterventionprogramsthattargetpreschoolchildren,especiallyinregionswithpooreducationstandards.Inthisresearch,asampleof129childrenwaschosenforthoseagedbetweenthreeandsixyearsandwhoresidedinaBrazilianstate.Thechosenstateisrankedsecond-lowestintermsofitshumandevelopmentindex.Thesechildrenwereclusteredintoacontrolgroupandtheexperimentalinterventiongroup.Here,itemslikeintelligence,phonologicalawareness,vocabulary,naming,andmemorywereassessedpreandposttheintervention.Therecordedfindingindicatedimprovementsinrapidautomatizednamingandvocabularyfortheexperimentalgroupforpost-interventiontests.Beforetheintervention,intelligencelevels,vocabularyresultswere25%.Phonologicalawarenesswasatabout26%fortheexperimentalgroup.Burns,M.Appleton,J.J.,&Stehouwer,J.D.(2005)Meta-analyticreviewofresponsiveness-tointerventionresearch.Examiningfield-basedandresearch-implementedmodels.JournalofPsychoeducationalAssessment,23(4),381-394.Inthisresearch,ameta-analyticassessmentwasdoneon4RTImodelsthatwerelargescaleandcomplementedbyothermodels.Here,unbiasedestimatesofeffect(UEE)for24identitieswerecomputed.Accordingtotheresults,therewasahighvalueofUEEintheRTImodelsthatexistedearlierthantheuniversityfacultyresults.However,bothcasesshowedastrongimpact.ThevaluesforUEEonthesystemicresultsandstudentachievementwasbeyond1.0.However,theUEEstudentvaluewasnearlyhalfthevalueofsystematicoutcomesfortheRTImodels.Themodels\'resultsalsorecordedaUEEvalueof0.47insystemictestsand1.14inthecaseofoutcomes.Inthisresearch,thenon-respondersaccountedfor19.8%,withanSDof12.5.Theaveragewas1.68%representinganSDof1.45oftheentirestudentpopulationunderspecialeducation.Thearticlealsosharesdetailsaboutfutureresearchandpossibleimplications.Burns,M.K.Griffiths,A.,Parson,L.B.,Tilly,W.D.,&VanDerHeyden,A.(2007)Responsetointervention:Researchtopractice.Alexandria,VA:NationalAssociationofStateDirectorsofSpecialEducation.ThispublicationisacompilationofresearchregardingtraditionalLDdiagnosticpracticesandRtI.Theauthorssoughttoidentifythemostimportant25articlesforeachtopicandprovidespecificreferences.Themostseminalfivearticlesforeachtopicareannotatedtosummarizefindingsinaneasilyaccessiblemanner.AlthoughtheauthorsattempttoprovideacomprehensiveresourceforbothtraditionalandRtI,theprimaryobjectiveistorespondtoconcernsaboutalackofaresearchbaseforRtI.Castillo,J.M.,Hines,C.M.Batsche,G.M.&Curtis,M.J.(2011)ProblemsolvingandresponsetointerventionProject3evaluation.EducationalandPsychologicalStudiesFacultyPublications,51.Retrievedfromhttp://scholarcommons.usf.edu/esf_facpub/51Inthisreport,theresearchersexaminetheimplementationoutcomesforthreeyears.Thatis2007-2010foraFloridaProblemSolvingproject(PS/RtI).TherewasacollaborationbetweentheUniversityofSouthFloridaandFDOEontrainingandtechnicalhelpsupportingthePS/RtIstructureintheproject.Second,theresearchcoveredtheeffectsofimplementingPS/RtIindifferentregionsthatwouldactasademonstrationpoint.Accordingtothereport,therewasnotableprofessionaldevelopmentforthethreeyearsinthepilotprograms\'schools.ToenhancetheimplementationofPS/RtIandtobecertainthattheprojectwasimplementedfaithfully,thestaffusedamodelthatincludedthreestages.Inthismodel,therewasengagementamongstakeholderswhowereprimarilyintheimplementationofPS/RtI,thosewhoaidedindevelopingtheinfrastructure,andthoseinthedeliverytier.Findingswerebasedontheadoptedmodel.Elliot,J.,&Morrison,D.(2008).Responsetointerventionblueprint:District-leveledition.Alexandria,VaNationalAssociationofStateDirectorsofSPEDeducation.ThearticlediscussesResponsetoIntervention(RtI),whichisdefinedasofferingadvancedinterventionstailoredtomeetthestudents\'needs,enablemonitoringoftheadvancement,andpromotethedecision-makingprocessbyutilizingtheavailabledata.InformationfromRtIisemployedinremedial,specialeducation,andgeneraldecision-makingprocedurestohelpcreateanintegratedsystemwhosemeritisbasedongathereddata.\"Blueprintdocuments\"aidinthedevelopmentofaplatformthatisisusableinRtIconstruction.These\"Blueprints\"arealsobuiltonpublicationsdonebyNASDSE.Therearethree\"Blueprints\"inthisseries:oneatthestate,district,andbuildingleveltoguideimplementation.Thesedocumentsarecreatedtoprovideconcreteguidancetoimplementationsites.This\"DistrictLevelBlueprint\"outlinesadistrict-levelstrategy\'scomponentstohelprealizeRtIthroughoutthedistrictandsupporttheindividualprojects.Inthiscase,districtsmustassessthesefeaturesintermsoftheirrelationshipsandstructuringforstateandindividualschoolagencies.Kratochwill,T.R.,&Shernoff(2004)Evidence-basedpractice:Promotingevidence-basedinterventionsinschoolpsychology.SchoolPsychologyReview,33(1),34-48.Theauthorspresentanoverviewofevidence-basedpracticeissuesandschoolpsychologists\'dutyindevelopingandsharingEBIs.Theyadvancetheargumentthataninterventionshouldcarrytheevidence-baseddesignationwheninformationoncontext-basedusageinapracticalsettingiswhereithasdemonstratedefficacyundertheconditionsofimplementationandevaluationinpractice.SuchaplaniscalledEBIreciprocaleffectandformsafundamentalaspectofEBIs.ThisframeworkextendsthedevelopmentalagendaofdesignatinganEBIinterventionfromitsexperimentalresearchfoundationstoitsapplicationinpracticesettings.Providingprofessionaldevelopmenttopractitioners,researchers,andtrainersinidentifying,reviewing,anddisseminatingEBIsisakeypartoftheTaskForceplan.Graduateprogramsmayusecompetency-basedtrainingthatwouldrequirestudentstomasterspecificEBIs.AsecondmodelforintegratingcontentonEBIsintograduatetrainingwouldbeforuniversitiestoencouragecross-disciplinarycourses(e.g.,offeredjointlybydepartmentsoftheschool,counseling,andclinicalpsychology)orinterdisciplinaryconcentrationcoursesonEBIs.Sugai,G.,&Horner,R.H.(2009)Responsiveness-to-interventionsandschool-widepositivebehaviorsupports:Integrationofmulti-tieredapproaches.Exceptionality,17,223-237.TheNoChildLeftBehindandtheIndividualswithDisabilitiesEducationActrecommendscientificallybasedresearchtoimprovestudents\'outcomes.Fromthisemphasis,response-to-interventionhasevolved.Theresearchersinthisarticlepresentoneperspectiveonthedefiningfeaturesofresponse-to-interventionandapplyingsuchtoolsinschool-widepositivebehaviorsupports(SWPBS).Accordingtotheresearch,theoriginalobjectiveofinterventionshasgrownfromtheoutcomeandscreening-basedapproachtointerventionsthattargetstudents\'decision-making.TheseinterventionsgivedetailsaboutSWPBSevolutionthatincludebehavioralsupportandcreationofsocialcultureinschools.Theyconcludebysuggestingthattheresponse-to-interventionapproachoffersanexcellentumbrellaofguidingprinciplesforimprovedassessmentandinterventiondecision-making.SWPBSisanexampleofapplyingfundamentaltoolstochallengeformalmethodsthattargetbehavioralchangeinaclassroomsetup.IneffortstosupportSWPBSrealization,theresearchersofferaself-assessmentprotocolforschoolandleadingspearheadingteamstoimprovethecreationofanintegratedsetofinterventionsthatensuretheprocessisrelevant,durable,andaffectiveaspects.ReferencesAspiranti,K.,Hilton-Prillhart,A.,Bebech,A.,&Dula,M.E.(2019).ResponsetoIntervention(RtI)andtheImpactonSchoolPsychologistRoles:PerceptionsandAcceptanceofSystemsChange.ContemporarySchoolPsychology,23(3),327-337.Barker,N.(2011).SystemsChange:AstudyofresponsetointerventionmodelimplementationattwoelementaryschoolsinsouthernCalifornia.(Doctoraldissertation).PepperdineUniversity.Malibu,CA.Barrio,B.L.,&Combes,B.H.(2015).Generaleducationpre-serviceteachers\'levelsofconcernonresponsetointervention(RTI)implementation.TeacherEducationandSpecialEducation,38(2),121-137.Batsche,G.M.,Kavale,K.A.&Kovaleski,J.F.(2006).Competingviews:Adialogueonresponsetointervention.AssessmentforEffectiveIntervention,32,6-20.Berliner,D.C.(1993).100-yearjourneyofeducationalpsychology:Frominteresttodisdaintorespectforpractice.InT.K.Fagan&G.R.VanderBos(Eds.),Exploringappliedpsychology:Originsandcriticalanalyses(pp.37-78).Washington,DC:AmericanPsychologicalAssociationBurns,M.K.,Appleton,J.J.,&Stehouwer,J.D.(2005).Meta-analyticreviewofresponsiveness-to-interventionresearch:Examiningfield-basedandresearch-implementedmodels.JournalofPsychoeducationalAssessment,23(4),381-394.Burns,M.K.,Preast,J.L.,Kilpatrick,K.D.,Taylor,C.N.,Youing,H.,Aguilar,L.,Allen,A.,Copeland,C.,Haider,A.&Henry,L.(2017).Leadershiptheoryforschoolpsychologists:Leadingforsystemschange.CommuniqueProfessionalPractice,46(2),1-30.Canter,A.(2006).Schoolpsychology.(COPSSEDocumentNumberIB-4).Gainesville,FL:theUniversityofFlorida,CenteronPersonnelStudiesinSpecialEducation.Curtis,M.J.&Batsche,G.M.(1991).Meetingtheneedsofchildrenandfamilies:Opportunitiesandchallengesforschoolpsychologytrainingprograms.SchoolPsychologyReview,20(4),565-577.Eisner,P.E.(1963).TheSchoolPsychologist.WashingtonDC:CenterforAppliedResearchinEducation.Fagan,T.K.(1992).Compulsoryschooling,childstudy,clinicalpsychology,andspecialeducation.AmericanPsychologist,47(2),236.Fagan,T.&Wise,P.S.(2007).Schoolpsychology:Past,present,andfuture(3rded.).NationalAssociationofSchoolPsychologists.Fuchs,D.,Mock,D.,Morgan,P.L.,&Young,C.L.(2003).Responsiveness?to?intervention:Definitions,evidence,andimplicationsforthelearningdisabilitiesconstruct.LearningDisabilitiesResearch&Practice,18(3),157-171.Fuchs,L.S.,Fuchs,D.,&Zumeta,R.O.(2008).Responsetointervention.EducatingIndividualswithDisabilities:IDEIA2004andBeyond,115.Gravois,T.A.,&Rosenfield,S.A.(2006).Impactofinstructionalconsultationteamsonthedisproportionatereferralandplacementofminoritystudentsinspecialeducation.Remedialandspecialeducation,27(1),42-52.Hawkins,R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