The Lingering Effects of Apartheid on South Africa 's Economic and Social Development Dissertation

Identifying Opportunities to Reduce Income Disparities in South Africa Today and In the FutureDespite the end of apartheid in the early 1990s, South Africa remains racially and economically segregated. The country is beset by persistent social inequality, poverty, unemployment, a heavy burden of disease and the inequitable quality of healthcare service provision. -- Katusha de Villiers (2021)In 2019, the World Bank recognized South Africa as the most unequal country in the world, meaning that South Africas economy does not equally benefit all of its citizens. Khanyi Mlaba (2020)Chapter One: IntroductionThe epigraphs above underscore the current plight of South Africa nearly 3 decades after apartheid was formally abolished and a democratically elected government assumed power. Like many sub-Saharan nations, South Africa has experienced its share of challenges over the past 2 centuries in overcoming the lingering effects of colonialism and then a draconian apartheid regime that severely polarized the South African people in ways that have left a challenging legacy to overcome. This legacy began in 1948 when apartheid was formally adopted by the South African government as a path towards the separate development of the nations races but which placed the black majority and other non-white groups at a disadvantage to the white minority (South Africa people, 2021).Besides international boycotts, protests by national leaders such as Nelson Mandela who spent decades opposing apartheid, with many of them spending time in prison as a result, finally compelled the white-led South African government to negotiate a peaceful transition to a democratic government with equal representation for all citizens in 1994 (South Africa people, 2021). Since that time, South Africa has faced a number of social and economic development challenges, most especially with respect to the lingering vestiges of apartheid-era inequities in income, employment opportunities, housing, education, and healthcare services. An unstable political regime marred by corruption has further exacerbated the problems facing South Africa at present (South Africa economy, 2021).Notwithstanding these challenges, though, and unlike a number of its sub-Saharan neighbors, South Africa also possesses multiple types of valuable natural resources as well as mature supply chain networks and financial, legal, communications, energy, and transport sectors. In addition, South Africa is a financial hub for the region, boasting the largest stock exchange on the continent which is also ranked among the top 20 stock exchanges globally. Notwithstanding these numerous advantages and because its economy is inextricably connected to the international marketplace, the South African economy has suffered some serious downturns in recent years that have created an unemployment crisis that threatens the stability of the nation. Furthermore, the nation is also struggling to meet the needs of its population during the ongoing global Covid-19 pandemic where South Africa has already recorded more than 1.5 million cases to date (South Africa Covid-19, 2021). These trends directly relate to the problem of interest to this study which are described further below.Statement of the ProblemDespite an abundance of natural resources, a modern infrastructure, and increasingly aggressive efforts by the national government and support from multiple nongovernmental organizations since apartheid ended in 1994, more than half (about 55% or 30.3 million people) of the South Africa population still lives in poverty today and another 13.8 million South Africans do not have enough to eat each day (Poverty & equity brief 2021). Moreover, current economic development indicators show that the per capita annualized consumption growth rate of the bottom 40 percent of the South African population actually suffered a 1.34% decline during the 4-year period from 2010 through 2014 (the latest statistic available from The World Bank).In addition, although attendance at educational institutions is nearly universal…

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…IdentifyingOpportunitiestoReduceIncomeDisparitiesinSouthAfricaTodayandIntheFutureDespitetheendofapartheidintheearly1990s,SouthAfricaremainsraciallyandeconomicallysegregated.Thecountryisbesetbypersistentsocialinequality,poverty,unemployment,aheavyburdenofdiseaseandtheinequitablequalityofhealthcareserviceprovision.--KatushadeVilliers(2021)In2019,theWorldBankrecognizedSouthAfricaasthemostunequalcountryintheworld,meaningthatSouthAfricaseconomydoesnotequallybenefitallofitscitizens.KhanyiMlaba(2020)ChapterOne:IntroductionTheepigraphsaboveunderscorethecurrentplightofSouthAfricanearly3decadesafterapartheidwasformallyabolishedandademocraticallyelectedgovernmentassumedpower.Likemanysub-Saharannations,SouthAfricahasexperienceditsshareofchallengesoverthepast2centuriesinovercomingthelingeringeffectsofcolonialismandthenadraconianapartheidregimethatseverelypolarizedtheSouthAfricanpeopleinwaysthathaveleftachallenginglegacytoovercome.Thislegacybeganin1948whenapartheidwasformallyadoptedbytheSouthAfricangovernmentasapathtowardstheseparatedevelopmentofthenationsracesbutwhichplacedtheblackmajorityandothernon-whitegroupsatadisadvantagetothewhiteminority(SouthAfricapeople,2021).Besidesinternationalboycotts,protestsbynationalleaderssuchasNelsonMandelawhospentdecadesopposingapartheid,withmanyofthemspendingtimeinprisonasaresult,finallycompelledthewhite-ledSouthAfricangovernmenttonegotiateapeacefultransitiontoademocraticgovernmentwithequalrepresentationforallcitizensin1994(SouthAfricapeople,2021).Sincethattime,SouthAfricahasfacedanumberofsocialandeconomicdevelopmentchallenges,mostespeciallywithrespecttothelingeringvestigesofapartheid-erainequitiesinincome,employmentopportunities,housing,education,andhealthcareservices.AnunstablepoliticalregimemarredbycorruptionhasfurtherexacerbatedtheproblemsfacingSouthAfricaatpresent(SouthAfricaeconomy,2021).Notwithstandingthesechallenges,though,andunlikeanumberofitssub-Saharanneighbors,SouthAfricaalsopossessesmultipletypesofvaluablenaturalresourcesaswellasmaturesupplychainnetworksandfinancial,legal,communications,energy,andtransportsectors.Inaddition,SouthAfricaisafinancialhubfortheregion,boastingthelargeststockexchangeonthecontinentwhichisalsorankedamongthetop20stockexchangesglobally.Notwithstandingthesenumerousadvantagesandbecauseitseconomyisinextricablyconnectedtotheinternationalmarketplace,theSouthAfricaneconomyhassufferedsomeseriousdownturnsinrecentyearsthathavecreatedanunemploymentcrisisthatthreatensthestabilityofthenation.Furthermore,thenationisalsostrugglingtomeettheneedsofitspopulationduringtheongoingglobalCovid-19pandemicwhereSouthAfricahasalreadyrecordedmorethan1.5millioncasestodate(SouthAfricaCovid-19,2021).Thesetrendsdirectlyrelatetotheproblemofinteresttothisstudywhicharedescribedfurtherbelow.StatementoftheProblemDespiteanabundanceofnaturalresources,amoderninfrastructure,andincreasinglyaggressiveeffortsbythenationalgovernmentandsupportfrommultiplenongovernmentalorganizationssinceapartheidendedin1994,morethanhalf(about55%or30.3millionpeople)oftheSouthAfricapopulationstilllivesinpovertytodayandanother13.8millionSouthAfricansdonothaveenoughtoeateachday(Poverty&equitybrief2021).Moreover,currenteconomicdevelopmentindicatorsshowthatthepercapitaannualizedconsumptiongrowthrateofthebottom40percentoftheSouthAfricanpopulationactuallysuffereda1.34%declineduringthe4-yearperiodfrom2010through2014(thelateststatisticavailablefromTheWorldBank).Inaddition,althoughattendanceateducationalinstitutionsisnearlyuniversalinSouthAfrica,significantpercentagesofSouthAfricanchildren(uptoone-thirdinsomeprovinces)stilllackaccesstoearlychildhooddevelopmentprogramming(MeasuringtheprogressofdevelopmentinSouthAfrica,2021)andliteracyratesaresubpar.Moreover,thesituationforthepoorestpeopleinSouthAfricaisworseningandtherearefewnewopportunitiesavailableontheshort-termhorizonthatcanhelpthemachievetheirfullemploymentpotentialandrealizethecompleterangeofhumanrightguaranteesintheSouthAfricanFreedomCharter,theUnitedNationsDeclarationofHumanRights,theSouthAfricanConstitutionandthecommitmentsmadebyheSouthAfricangovernmentmostrecentlyinFebruary2021topromoteeffortstotackleissuessuchaspoverty,exclusion,employment,genderequityandaccesstosocialwell-beingandjusticeforall(WorldDayofJustice,2021,para.2).Insum,theabilityofthenationsleaderstotakeadvantageofSouthAfricascornucopiaofvaluablenaturalresourceshasbeenlimitedinanumberofwaysthathavedirectlyaffectedthewellbeingofitscitizens.Whilemanyoftheseconstraintscanbetracedtotheapartheidera,itisalsoclearthatSouthAfricahavefailedtoachievethepromiseofthemiraclethatoccurredin1994whenapartheidwasformallyabolishedanddemocraticelectionswereheldforthefirsttimeinthecountryshistory.Atpresent,someofSouthAfricasmoresignificanteconomicdevelopmentchallengesincludethefollowing:SouthAfrica\'seconomicpolicyhasfocusedoncontrollinginflationwhileempoweringabroadereconomicbase;however,thecountryfacesstructuralconstraintsthatalsolimiteconomicgrowth,suchasskillsshortages,decliningglobalcompetitiveness,andfrequentworkstoppagesduetostrikeaction.Thegovernmentfacesgrowingpressurefromurbanconstituenciestoimprovethedeliveryofbasicservicestolow-incomeareas,toincreasejobgrowth,andtoprovideuniversitylevel-educationataffordableprices.PoliticalinfightingamongSouthAfricasrulingpartyandthevolatilityoftherandriskseconomicgrowth.Internationalinvestorsareconcernedaboutthecountryslong-termeconomicstability;inlate2016,mostmajorinternationalcreditratingsagenciesdowngradedSouthAfricasinternationaldebttojunkbondstatus(SouthAfricagovernment,2021,p.5).Moretroublingstill,corruptionhasalonghistoryinSouthAfricathatdatestothe17thcenturyanditremainsrampantthroughoutthepublicandprivatesectors.Indeed,Daley(2021,p.3)emphasizesthat,Giventhishistory,itisnotsurprisingthatcorruptionwasaconstantfeatureoftheapartheidperiod.Blackpeoplewereitschiefvictims,sincetheyhadnorightsandsonowayofprotectingthemselvesagainstabuse.Buttheywerenottheonlyones,aspoliticiansandofficialsusedgovernmentpowerforpersonalgain.Unfortunately,thissamepatternhasbeenrepeatedcountlesstimessince1994,andcorruptionremainsoneofthemostimportantchallengesfacingSouthAfricatoday(Daley,2021).Takentogether,SouthAfricahasanuphillroadaheadasitseekstoaddressthemultifaceted,complexandwell-entrenchedproblemsfacingthenationtoday,anissuethatdirectlyrelatestothepurposeofthisstudywhichisdescribedbelow.PurposeoftheStudyAlthoughracialsegregationhasnotbeenuniquetoSouthAfrica,thecountrysstrictapartheidlawsenduredfarlongerthanmost,arealitythathastranslatedintowidespreadinequalitiesthatpersisttothisday.Insomecases,theseinequalitiesarereadilyapparentbutinothers,post-apartheidlifeformanyblacksinSouthAfricaisstillcontrollingininsidiouswaysbythelegacyoftheseracialsegregationlaws.Indeed,asnotedabove,SouthAfricaiswidelyregardedasbeingthemostunequalcountryintheworldatpresent,aneventualitythatdismaysmanystakeholderstodaywhowerehighlyoptimisticaboutthenationspotentialforthefuture.Inthisregard,Pooley(2018,pp.640-641)emphasizesthat,Inequalitydefinesthepost-apartheidcondition.YearsafterSouthAfricasfirstdemocraticelectionsin1994,thenationhasmovedtoradicallevelsofsocioeconomicpolarization.Poverty,unemploymentandlackofopportunityaretheconsumingrealityformillionsofSouthAfricans.Therefore,thepurposeofthisstudywastoidentifythelingeringvestigesofapartheidthataremostsalientinmaintainingexistinginstitutionalizedracismandincomedisparitiesamongSouthAfricasmarginalizedcitizenryandexaminingwaystheycanbeeliminated.ResearchQuestionsThestudywasguidedbythefollowingresearchquestions:1.Whataretheprimaryconstraintstoreducinginequalitiesandpromotingsocialjustice,conceptualizedastheequitabledistributionofwealth,opportunitiesandprivileges,inSouthAfricatoday?2.Whatevidence-basedinitiativeshavebeenusedbytheprivatesectorinotheremergingnationstoimprovesocialjusticeandincomeequalitythroughinitiativessuchasjobcreationandskillstraining?3.HowcantheexistinghumanandnaturalresourcesinSouthAfricabeleveragedtotheirbestadvantageforfutureeconomicdevelopmentinwaysthatpromotesocialjusticeandincomeequality?4.Howcanpublic-privatepartnershipsbeusedtotheirbesteffectinaSouthAfricancontexttoachievegreaterprosperityforall?ImportanceofthestudyAgainsttheforegoingbackdrop,itisclearthatSouthAfricanpolicymakersaswellastheinternationalcommunitymustdevelopinnovativesolutionwhicharetargetedatnotonlyalleviatingthesufferingoftheseimpoverishindividualsbutpavetheroadforfutureeconomicdevelopmenttoensurethateveryoneinSouthAfricathatwantsajobthatpaysalivingwagecangetone.Likewise,additionalprovisionsmustbemadeforthewell-beingofthepeopleofSouthAfricawhoareunabletopursuegainfulemploymentforwhateverreason.Tothisend,developingnewemploymentopportunitiesthroughpublicandprivatesectorspartnershipsrepresenttimelyandvaluablepotentialsolutionstothesechallengingproblems.ChapterTwo:ReviewoftheLiteratureFollowingtheeliminationofapartheidandtheconductofthefirstmulti-racialelectionsin1994,theAfricanNationalCongress(ANC)headedamajorityrulegovernmentthathassoughttodirectlyaddresstheapartheid-erainequalitiesthatcontinuetoexistinallfacetsofSouthAfricansociety.OneofthefoundationaldocumentsthatguidedthisprocesswastheSouthAfricanFreedomCharter,adoptedbytheANCin1955toserveasavisionforafutureSouthAfricathatheldequalopportunityforall.Forexample,accordingtoRoberts(2020),TheFreedomCharterremainedaprogrammaticvisionfortheANCformorethan30years,andcontinuestohaveabroadinfluenceonthepoliciesofgovernment,suchasthoseaimedataddressingpastinjusticesandpromotingequity(p.3).TheFreedomChartermakesitclearthattherewasnoroomleftinSouthAfricansocietyfortheapartheid-erainequalitiesthathavecharacterizedlifeforthevastmajorityofSouthAfricansforthepasthalfcenturyandmore,buttheaspirationscodifiedintheCharterhavenotcometofruitionandinsomecaseshaveevenworsenedovertheyears.ThepreambletotheSouthAfricanFreedomCharterreadsasfollows:We,thePeopleofSouthAfrica,declareforallourcountryandtheworldtoknow:thatSouthAfricabelongstoallwholiveinit,blackandwhite,andthatnogovernmentcanjustlyclaimauthorityunlessitisbasedonthewillofallthepeople;thatourpeoplehavebeenrobbedoftheirbirthrighttoland,libertyandpeacebyaformofgovernmentfoundedoninjusticeandinequality;thatourcountrywillneverbeprosperousorfreeuntilallourpeopleliveinbrotherhood,enjoyingequalrightsandopportunities;thatonlyademocraticstate,basedonthewillofallthepeople,cansecuretoalltheirbirthrightwithoutdistinctionofcolor,race,sexorbelief;Andtherefore,we,thepeopleofSouthAfrica,blackandwhitetogether-equals,countrymenandbrothers-adoptthisFreedomCharter.Andwepledgeourselvestostrivetogether,sparingneitherstrengthnorcourage,untilthedemocraticchangesheresetouthavebeenwon.TheFreedomCharteralsooutlines10specificareasinwhichadditionalprogresswasneededtoachievethisvisionforSouthAfricasfutureassetforthinTable__below.Table__SouthAfricasFreedomChartercommitmentsCommitmentDescriptionThePeopleShallGovern!Everymanandwomanshallhavetherighttovoteforandtostandasacandidateforallbodieswhichmakelaws;Allpeopleshallbeentitledtotakepartintheadministrationofthecountry;Therightsofthepeopleshallbethesame,regardlessofrace,colororsex;Allbodiesofminorityrule,advisoryboards,councilsandauthoritiesshallbereplacedbydemocraticorgansofself-government.AllNationalGroupsShallHaveEqualRights!Thereshallbeequalstatusinthebodiesofstate,inthecourtsandintheschoolsforallnationalgroupsandraces;Allpeopleshallhaveequalrighttousetheirownlanguages,andtodeveloptheirownfolkcultureandcustoms;Allnationalgroupsshallbeprotectedbylawagainstinsultstotheirraceandnationalpride;Thepreachingandpracticeofnational,raceorcolordiscriminationandcontemptshallbeapunishablecrime;Allapartheidlawsandpracticesshallbesetaside.ThePeopleShallShareintheCountrysWealth!Thenationalwealthofourcountry,theheritageofallSouthAfricans,shallberestoredtothepeople;Themineralwealthbeneaththesoil,thebanksandmonopolyindustryshallbetransferredtotheownershipofthepeopleasawhole;Allotherindustryandtradeshallbecontrolledtoassistthewell-beingofthepeople;Allpeopleshallhaveequalrightstotradewheretheychoose,tomanufactureandtoenteralltrades,craftsandprofessions.TheLandShallBeSharedAmongThoseWhoWorkIt!Restrictionsoflandownershiponaracialbasisshallbeended,andallthelandredividedamongstthosewhoworkit,tobanishfamineandlandhunger;Thestateshallhlpthepeasantswithimplements,seed,tractorsanddamstosavethesoilandassistthetillers;Freedomofmovementshallbeguaranteedtoallwhoworkontheland;Allshallhavetherighttooccupylandwherevertheychoose;Peopleshallnotberobbedoftheircattle,andforcedlaborandfarmprisonsshallbeabolished.AllShallBeEqualBeforetheLaw!Nooneshallbeimprisoned,deportedorrestrictedwithoutafairtrial;NooneshallbecondemnedbytheorderofanyGovernmentofficial;Thecourtsshallberepresentativeofallthepeople;Imprisonmentshallbeonlyforseriouscrimesagainstthepeople,andshallaimatre-education,notvengeance;Thepoliceforceandarmyshallbeopentoallonanequalbasisandshallbethehelpersandprotectorsofthepeople;Alllawswhichdiscriminateongroundsofrace,colororbeliefshallberepealed.ThereShallBeWorkandSecurity!Allwhoworkshallbefreetoformtradeunions,toelecttheirofficersandtomakewageagreementswiththeiremployers;Thestateshallrecognizetherightanddutyofalltowork,andtodrawfullunemploymentbenefits;Menandwomenofallracesshallreceiveequalpayforequalwork;Thereshallbeaforty-hourworkingweek,anationalminimumwage,paidannualleave,andsickleaveforallworkers,andmaternityleaveonfullpayforallworkingmothers;Miners,domesticworkers,farmworkersandcivilservantsshallhavethesamerightsasallotherswhowork;Childlabor,compoundlabor,thetotsystemandcontractlaborshallbeabolished.TheDoorsofLearningandofCultureShallBeOpened!Thegovernmentshalldiscover,developandencouragenationaltalentfortheenhancementofourculturallife;Alltheculturaltreasuresofmankindshallbeopentoall,byfreeexchangeofbooks,ideasandcontactwithotherlands;Theaimofeducationshallbetoteachtheyouthtolovetheirpeopleandtheirculture,tohonorhumanbrotherhood,libertyandpeace;Educationshallbefree,compulsory,universalandequalforallchildren;Highereducationandtechnicaltrainingshallbeopenedtoallbymeansofstateallowancesandscholarshipsawardedonthebasisofmerit;Adultilliteracyshallbeendedbyamassstateeducationplan;Teachersshallhavealltherightsofothercitizens;Thecolorbarinculturallife,insportandineducationshallbeabolished.ThereShallBeHouses,SecurityandComfort!Allpeopleshallhavetherighttolivewheretheychoose,tobedecentlyhoused,andtobringuptheirfamiliesincomfortandsecurity;Unusedhousingspacetobemadeavailabletothepeople;Rentandpricesshallbelowered,foodplentifulandnooneshallgohungry;Apreventivehealthschemeshallberunbythestate;Freemedicalcareandhospitalizationshallbeprovidedforall,withspecialcareformothersandyoungchildren;Slumsshallbedemolished,andnewsuburbsbuiltwhereallhavetransport,roads,lighting,playingfields,crechesandsocialcenters;Theaged,theorphans,thedisabledandthesickshallbecaredforbythestate;Rest,leisureandrecreationshallbetherightofall;Fencedlocationsandghettoesshallbeabolished,andlawswhichbreakupfamiliesshallberepealed.ThereShallbePeaceandFriendship!SouthAfricashallbeafullyindependentstate,whichrespectstherightsandsovereigntyofallnations;SouthAfricashallstrivetomaintainworldpeaceandthesettlementofallinternationaldisputesbynegotiation-notwar;Peaceandfriendshipamongstallourpeopleshallbesecuredbyupholdingtheequalrights,opportunitiesandstatusofall;Thepeopleoftheprotectorates-Basutoland,BechuanalandandSwaziland-shallbefreetodecideforthemselvestheirownfuture;TherightofallthepeoplesofAfricatoindependenceandself-governmentshallberecognizedandshallbethebasisofcloseco-operation.Letallwholovetheirpeopleandtheircountrynowsay,aswesayhere:\'THESEFREEDOMSWEWILLFIGHTFOR,SIDEBYSIDE,THROUGHOUTOURLIVES,UNTILWEHAVEWONOURLIBERTY.\'AdoptedattheCongressofthePeople,Kliptown,SouthAfrica,on26June1955(emphasesinoriginaldocument).AnexaminationofhowwellSouthAfricahasachievedthesereasonablecivilrightsgoalsisprovidedasascorecardinthedataanalysischapterthatfollowbelow,butitisclearthatthechickenineverypot-typegoalsoutlineintheFreedomCharterhavenotbeenfullyrealizedforamajorityofthenationspopulation.Whilemanypeopleintheworldduringthemid-20thcenturysimplytookthefundamentalcivilrightsoutlinedintheSouthAfricanFreedomCharterforgranted,thisproclamationwashistoricforSouthAfricaandservedtosetthestagefortheeradicationofapartheidanditsassociatedlawsthatmarginalizedamajorityofthecountryspopulationaswellastheactionsthatwouldberequiredthereaftertoachievetheseambitiousobjectivesforallSouthAfricanpeople.Astheresearchthatfollowsbelowwillclearlydemonstrate,though,thepeopleandgovernmentofSouthAfricahavemultipleandseriouschallengesthatarearrayedagainstthemthathaveconstrainedtheirabilitytoachievetheselaudableoutcomes.Today,SouthAfricaisclassifiedasamiddle-incomenationthatenjoysabundantnaturalresources,amaturelegalandfinancialnetworkaswellasacomparativelymoderntelecommunicationsandtransportationinfrastructure(SouthAfricaeconomy2021).Inaddition,SouthAfricahasthe17thlargeststockexchangeintheworldandapopulationof57millionpeoplewithastrongworkethicandsenseofnationhood.AlthoughSouthAfricaexperiencedsustainedeconomicgrowthduringtheearlyyearsofthe21stcentury,theglobaleconomicdownturnin2009hadadevastatingeffectonthecountrysmacroeconomicstabilityfromwhichithasstillnotfullyrecovered(SouthAfricaeconomy2021).ThepercapitaGDPforSouthAfricahasresembledarollercoasteronthedownsideofaprecipitousdropinrecentyearsasdepictedinFigure__below.Figure1.PercapitaGDPforSouthAfrica:1960todateSource:SouthAfricaGDPPerCapita1960-2021(2021)athttps://www.macrotrends.net/countries/ZAF/south-africa/gdp-per-capitaFurthercompoundingtheproblemsfacingSouthAfricaatpresenthasbeenanenergycrisisthatbeganin2007whichhasresultedinrollingblackoutsformanyresidentsofmajorcitieswhichhaveadverselyaffectedvirtuallyallfacetsofeconomiclifeinthecountry.Inaddition,despitesignificantprogressotherwise,therearestillsevereproblemslingeringfromthenationsapartheiderathathavecreatedlimitedemploymentopportunitiesformanydemographicgroups(SouthAfricaeconomy2020).ThenetresultofthisperfectstormofexistentialthreatsarrayedagainstSouthAfricahasbeenanincreaseinthelevelofincomeinequalitywhichdefyeasysolutions(KavyaandSanthakumar2020).ThecombinationofalackofongoinginvestmentsininfrastructureandgrowingunemploymentrateshasfurtherexacerbatedSouthAfricaseffortstorecovertoitspre-recessionlevels,andthecountryhasoneoftheworldshighestCovid-19infectionratesatpresentwith1.5millionconfirmedcasesandanewvariantofthevirusthatthreatenstofurtherdisruptthecountryseconomicstabilitygoingforward(JohnsHopkinsCoronavirusResourceCenter2021).Takentogether,theforegoingtrendsandissuesmakeitclearthatthepoliticalleadersandpeopleofSouthAfricahaveanumberofchallengesahead,makingtheneedtodeterminethebestpathforwardatthispointintimetoreduceincomeinequalitiesanespeciallytimelyandvaluableenterprise.ThereareanumberofdifferentwaysavailablethatcanbeusedtodeterminetheantecedentsofcurrentincomeinequalitylevelsinSouthAfrica.Forexample,thecountrycurrentlysuffersfromoneofthehighestincomeinequalitylevelsintheworldasmeasuredbythecommonlyusedGiniindex(SouthAfricasinequality,2020).Forexample,accordingtooneeconomist,TheGiniindexisameasureofthedistributionofincomeacrossapopulation.Itisoftenusedasagaugeofeconomicinequality,measuringincomedistributionor,lesscommonly,wealthdistributionamongapopulation(Giniindex,2021).TheInternationalMonetaryFund(IMF)appliedtheGiniindextoSouthAfricascurrentsituationanddeterminedthatincomeinequalitiesinthecountryhavecontinuedtoremainatinordinatelyhighlevels.Infact,beginninginthe1990swhenSouthAfricaalreadysufferedfromahighinequalitylevelduetotheapartheidlawsthatpreventedlargesegmentsofthepopulationfromsecuringimprovedemploymentopportunities,theGiniindexforSouthAfrica(63.0atpresent)hascontinuedtoincreaseinseverity.InthisregardandasdepictedinFigure1below,theIMFemphasizesthat,SouthAfricasGinianindexthatmeasuresinequalityhasincreasedfurtherintheearly2000sandhasremainedhigheversince.Meanwhile,itspeershavebeenabletomakeinroadsinreducinginequality(SouthAfricasinequality,2020,p.2).Figure__.IncreasinginequalityinSouthAfrica:1993-2017BesidesthedismalGiniindexratingsforSouthAfrica,thecountrysincomedistributionlevelsalsoremainseverelyskewedinwaysthatreflectsignificantincomeinequalities.AlthoughsuchskewedincomedistributionlevelsarenotuniquetoSouthAfrica,thismeasuredoesunderscorethesignificantdisparitiesbetweenthecountrysrichestandpoorestcitizens.Forinstance,thetop20%oftheSouthAfricanpopulationpossessesmorehantwo-thirdsofthenationsincome(68%)versusamedianrateof47%forcomparableemergingnations(SouthAfricasinequality,2020)asshowninFigure__below.Inaddition,thebottom40%oftheSouthAfricanpopulationholds7%ofthenationsincomeversus16%forsimilarlysituatedemergingeconomies)andcomparabletrendscanbediscernedfromanapplicationofothereconomicmeasuresincludingthetop1%sshareofSouthAfricasincome(SouthAfricasinequality,2020).Figure__.WealthconcentrationinSouthAfricaAsnotedabove,economistsandsocialscienceresearcherscandrawonanumberofdifferentmeasurestoassessincomeinequalitiesinagivencountry,includinganysignificantregionalinequities.InthecaseofSouthAfrica,therearesignificantdisparitiesacrossmultipleregionsofthecountry.Forinstance,slightlymorethantwo-thirds(67.4%)ofthecountryspopulationliveinurbanizedareaswherepercapitaincomelevelsarehighest,meaningruralregionssufferfromsevereincomeinequalitiesbycomparison(SouthAfricapeople,2021).TheIMFalsocitestheseregionaldisparitiesasevidenceoftheincomeinequalitiesinSouthAfrica.Inthisregard,theIMFreferstoFigure__belowandnotesthat,Significantdisparitiesremainacrossregions.IncomepercapitainGautengthemaineconomicprovincethatcompriseslargecitieslikeJohannesburgandPretoriaisalmosttwicethelevelsasthatfoundinthemostlyruralprovinceslikeLimpopoandEasternCape[and]beingclosetotheeconomiccentersincreasesjobandincomeprospects(SouthAfricasinequality,2020p.5).Figure__.RegionaldivideinSouthAfricaPerhapsoneofthemoreglaringchallengesthatcurrentfacepolicymakersinSouthAfricaisthefundamentallackofemploymentopportunitiesforthenationsyouth.Indeed,SouthAfricaisacomparativelyyoungnation,with27.94%ofthepopulationaged0-14years,16.8%aged15to24yearsand42.37%aged24to54years;just6.8%oftheSouthAfricanpopulationisaged55to64yearsandevenfewer(6.09%)areaged65yearsandoverasdepictedinthepopulationpyramidshowninFigure__below.Figure__.PopulationpyramidforSouthAfricaSource:CIAWorldFactbookathttps://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/static/b494e6e2b51b0db23fde0acc285a4085/596f3/SF_popgraph2021.jpgAlthoughmanynationsthataresufferingfromdecliningpopulationsduetoanegativegrowthrateandwouldenvySouthAfricasburgeoningyouthfulpopulation,therearesimplynotenoughjobsatpresentforthecurrentcohortofyoungpeopleandmoreaspiringworkersarebeingaddedtothemixeveryday.Infact,SouthAfricaranksthethirdhighestintheentireworldintermsofitsunemploymentratesforyouthages15to24yearswithastaggering53.4%unemploymentrate(males49.2%andfemales58.8%)(SouthAfricapeople,2021).Moreover,theseunemploymentratesmaybeunderestimatedandprecisefiguresaredifficulttocomebysotheseratesmaybemuchhigherinreality.Forexample,accordingtoMartins(2017),agreatdealhaschangedinSouthAfricasinceapartheidwasformallyoutlawed,butthepromisesofthepasthavenotmaterializedforthevastmajorityofimpoverishedSouthAfricans.Inthisregard,Martins(2017,p.17)advisesthat:Ademocraticgovernmenthascometopower;socialgrants,(includingthosespecificallyforchildren)havebeenrolledoutacrossthecountryandpoliciestogeneratejobshavebeenattheheartofstateattemptstoovercomepovertyformorethan20years.Buttheharshrealityremains.In1993,thelevelofunemployment(includingthosewhowantedworkbutweretoodiscouragedtocontinuelookingforit)forallSouthAfricansaveraged33%,whileforblackAfricanyouth(aged1624years)itwas65%.By2014thelevelshadnotfallen.One-thirdofallSouthAfricanswhowantedworkcouldnotfindit,whileforyoungblackpeople,theaveragewasstillnearlytwo-thirds.Atthesametime,whilepovertyhasbeenslightlyreduced,itremainswidespreadandthelevelofinequalityhasdeepened.Itislikelyextremelydifficultforpeopleinaffluentcountriestofullyunderstandtheimpactthatpovertycanhaveonindividuallifestyles,buttheproblemclearlytranscendjustmoneyandextendstovirtuallyallaspectsoflifeinSouthAfricatoday.Furthermore,thesetroublingunemploymentrateshaveremainedstagnatedorhaveevenworsenedoverthepastdecadeorsobecausetheSouthAfricaneconomyhasnotbeenabletocreateenoughnewjobstoaccommodateexistingandnewentrantsintothejobmarketasshowninFigure__below.Thesetrendsunderscoretheneedforgreatereconomicinvestmentsinenterprisesthatcangenerateadditionallow-skilledjobsforexistingandnewmarketentrantstoreduceincomeinequalities(SouthAfricasinequality,2020).Figure__.Incomepercapitaindex:1993-2018TheIMFacknowledgesthatSouthAfricashighunemploymentraterepresentsamajorchallengetoreducingthepercapitaincomeinequalitylevelsshowninFigure__above,butthecountrysunemploymentrate,especiallyforyoungpeople,isevenmuchhigherthaninotheremergingeconomiesasshowninFigure__below.Figure__.YouthunemploymentinSouthAfricaItisessentialtopointout,however,thatunemploymentinSouthAfricaisnottheonlysourceofincomeinequality.Forexample,accordingtoKollamparambil(2017,p.3),Wageinequalityalsocontributessubstantiallytoinequality.Thus,beingemployedisnotsufficienttoeliminateinequalityasahouseholdislikelytocontinueinthelowerdecilesofthehouseholdincomedistributionwithanearnerwithunskilledemployment.ThesetrendsmeanthatincreasinginequalitiesinwageearningsrepresentsthemostsignificantsourceofincomeinequalityinSouthAfricaatpresent(Kollamparambil,2017).Besidesgreaterinvestmentinprivatesectorenterprisesthatcangeneratenewlow-skilledjobsforthenationsyouth,particularlyinruralregionsofthecountrywherepovertylevelsarehighest,employmentopportunitiescanalsobeenhancedthroughimprovementsinthecountryseducationalsystem(SouthAfricasinequality,2021).Hereagain,though,therearesomenotablegender-relateddifferencesthatareinvolvedaswell.Forexample,althoughtheliteracyrateforthetotalSouthAfricanpopulationis87%,87.7%ofmalesareliteratecomparedto86.5%offemales(SouthAfricanpeople,2021).Inaddition,improvingthequalityofeducationcanalsobeenhancedbycreatingadditionalaffordabletransportationservicesfromoutlyingregionstomajorjobcenters(SouthAfricasinequality,2020)Itisimportanttonote,however,thatthereareanumberofevidentiaryindicatorsthatalsoreflectincomeinequitiesinagivencountry,includingskewedincomedistributionlevels,regionaldisparitiesandunequalaccesstoemploymentopportunities.InthecaseofSouthAfrica,persistentlylowgrowthlevelscombinedwithincreasingunemploymentrates,especiallyamongyouth,haveexacerbatedincomeinequalitylevelsinbothruralandurbanizedregionsofthecountry(SouthAfricasinequality,2020).Nevertheless,employmentopportunities,especiallyforyoungpeople,areevenmorescarceinruralregionsofthecountry,arealitythatdrivesmanydesperatejob-seekerstourbanareaswheretheirchancesoffindingsameaningfuljobareonlyslightlybetter.ThestagnatedemploymentopportunitiesthatareavailabletoSouthAfricanshavenotonlybeenasignificantsymptomofchronicinequalities,theyhavealsoadverselyaffectedgrowthinothereconomicindicators.Toitscredit,theSouthAfricangovernmenthasrecognizedtheneedforaddressingtheincomeinequalitiesthatcontinuetohamperthecountryseconomicgrowth,includingvariousprogressivefiscalredistributioninitiatives.Byandlarge,though,themajorityoftheSouthAfricangovernmentseffortstoaddressinequalitiesacrossthecountryhaveconcentratedprimarilyonadditionalsocialspending,targetedtransfersofgovernmentmonies,andaffirmativeactioninitiativesthatareintendedtodiversifytheaccumulatedofwealthfromafewindividualsinordertopromoteentrepreneurshipandsmallbusinessgrowth(SouthAfricasinequality,2020).Whiletheseinitiativesarewidelyregardedasagoodstart,mostobserversconcedethatfarpublicandprivatesectorinterventionstoencourageprivateinvestments,jobcreationandinclusivegrowtharerequiredinordertomakeasubstantivedifferencetodayandinthefuture(SouthAricasinequality,2020).SomeoftherecommendationsthathavebeenmadebytheIMFtoassistSouthAfricainreducingitschronicincomeinequalitiesincludethefollowing:Creatingabusinessenvironmentmoreconducivetoprivateinvestmentandjobcreation;Improvedgovernance;Reducingthecostofdoingbusiness;Makinggoodsandservicesmarketsmoreopentocompetition;Allowingfirmstocompensateworkersinlinewiththeirskillsandproductivity;Makingstate-ownedserviceprovidersmoreefficient;and,Policieswillalsobeneededtocreateopportunitiestosupportthemarginalizedpopulationthroughimprovedqualityofeducation,health,andtransportation(SouthAfricasinequality,2020,p.19).TheserecommendationsarecongruentwiththemostglaringinequalitiesthatwereidentifiedinareportbyMlaba(2020)whichsummarizedarecentOxfamreportidentifiedfivemainreasonsforSoutAfricascurrentincomeinequalitiesasfollows:1.Theaveragewhite,maleCEOearnsthesameas461Blackwomeninthebottom10%ofearners.Whilejustover30%ofBlackwomeninSouthAfricaareemployed(comparedto70%ofwhitemen)mostofthemworkinlow-payingcarepositionsoroccupyprecariousjobs,suchascallcenteroperatorsorhousekeepers.TheaveragemonthlyincomeofaBlackwomandoingprecariousworkisjustR2,500,which,comparedtoawhitewomaninthesamepositionwhoonaverageearnsR10,000,isverylow.SouthAfricanwomenworklongerhoursandaremorededicatedtotheiremployment.2.Nineoutof10Blackhouseholdsdonothavemedicalinsurance.MostBlackhouseholdshavetopayoutofpocketforhealthcareservices,andcannotaffordmedicalaid.Just10%ofhouseholdsareheadedbyaBlackpersonwhocanaffordmedicalaid.Thiscomparedto70%ofwhite-headedhouseholdsunderthesamecircumstances.3.QualifiedBlackwomenearn24%lessthanqualifiedwhitewomen.Blackwomenbetweentheagesof18and34withauniversitydegreehaveanaveragemonthlyincomeofR13,000,comparedtoawhitewomanunderthesamecircumstancesearningR17,000onaverage.Morethanthis,whitepeoplewhohavenotcompletedtheirhighschooleducationanddonothaveamatriccertificate,tendtoearnmorethanBlackpeoplewhodohaveamatriccertificate.4.Blackwomenprovidingcareworkareunpaidorunderpaidfortheirservices.Blackwomenaremorelikelytoworkinunderpaidservicepositionssuchashousework,education,childcare,andcommunityservices.Thesepositionsareessentialforafunctioningeconomyeventhoughtheypaytheleast.Women,mainlyBlackwomen,arealotmorelikelytotakeoncareworktheworkdoneoutoflove,commitment,orduty.Thiskindofworkisnotincludedinthecalculationsontheeconomyoritsgrowthandveryoftengoesunpaid.ThevalueofwomensunpaidcareworkisaroundR352billionannually,whichisroughly14%ofSouthAfricasGrossDomesticProduct.Unfairly,thewealthiest10%actuallydependonthisfreeorunderpaidworkasitconsistsofmenialtime-consumingworkthatcontributestoafunctioninghousehold,examplesofthesewouldbechildcareandcleaningservices.5.Blackwomen-ownedpropertiesarelessvaluablethanwhite-ownedproperties.AlthoughitwasrecentlyestablishedthatyoungBlackwomenarebecomingstrongforcesinthepropertymarketwithmanyofthoseintheirlate20sandearly30sowningatleastonepropertyBlackfemale-ownedpropertiesareworthlessthanwhite-ownedproperties.PropertyvaluedatlessthanR50,000ismostlikelytobeownedandheadedbyaBlackwoman,whereaspropertyvaluedatmorethanR1millionismostlikelyownedbyawhiteman(Mlaba,2020,pp.4-6).TheforegoingaspectsofSouthAfricascurrentincomeinequalitiesmakeitclearthattheproblemissevereandthestakesarehigh,butthereareanumberofotherfactorsthatareinvolvedinthiscalculusthatmustbetakenintoaccountinordertoachieveoptimaloutcomesusingscarcetaxpayerresourcesandtheseareexaminedfurtherbelow.Summaryofrecentpeer-reviewedandmainstreammediaarticlesGivenSouthAfricasstrategicgeographiclocationandincreasingimportanceasaregionalfinancialhub(seethepoliticalmapofSouthAfricaatFigure__below),itislittlewonderthatthecountryscurrenteconomicpredicamenthasbeenthefocusofasignificantamountofscholarshipinrecentyears.Figure__.PoliticalmapofSouthAfricaSource:https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/static/1bbf503624fe7c093be06076dd8d696a/8fb37/SF-map.jpgAswillbeshowninthetabularsummariessetforthinTables__through__below,oneofthemoreinterestingandnoteworthyfindingsthatquicklyemergesfromtheresearchconcernsthefactthatwhilevirtuallyallresearchersrecognizetheimmensityofthechallengesthatlieahead,thereisfarlessconsensusabouttheirpreciseorigins,theirpersistenceinadverselyaffectingequality,andhowbesttoproceedbeyondvagueplatitudesaboutmorejobcreationandwealthredistributioninthefuture.Table___CausesandimplicationsofincomeinequalityinSouthAfricaSourceKeyfindingsCommentsFriedman(2019)?ThestandardexplanationforSouthAfricasfailuretoachieveitsnationalobjectivesisfamiliartoanyonewhohasfollowedthecountryspost-independencepath.?Thedemocraticconstitutionadoptedin1993andrefinedin1996bythefirstparliamentelectedbyuniversalfranchisein1994endedtheproblemofracialdominationthatwascentraltopre-democraticSouthAfrica.Itcreatedaninclusivedemocracyinwhichallenjoyequalrights,anditsmuch-admiredconstitutioncreatedaframeworkthatallowscitizensandtheirrepresentativestouseitsleverstocreateafairer,moreprosperoussociety.?SouthAfricanpoliticiansparticularlythecountry\'sfourthpresident,JacobZuma,whowaselectedin2009andgoverneduntilhewasforcedtoresigninearly2018misusedthenewordertoenrichthemselvesanddamagetheinstitutionscreatedbytheconstitution.AndsothebraveneworderthattheworldcelebratedisnowforevertarnishedAquartercenturyafterSouthAfrica\'snegotiatedsettlementproducedademocracythatwonthecountryanditsfirstpresident,NelsonMandela,admirationaroundtheglobe,ithasbecometritetopointoutthattheneworderhasfallenshortofmanyoftheexpectationsplaceduponit.Whatisorshouldbefiercelycontestediswhythisfallfromgracehascometopass.Schneider(2018)?Themaintenanceofkeyapartheid-erainstitutions,undertheguiseofmarketfriendlypolicies,underminedtheprospectsforlong-termeconomicandhumandevelopmentinSouthAfrica.Thispost-apartheiddevelopmentdebacleshouldgodowninhistoryasoneofthegreatfailuresofmainstreameconomicsandneoliberalpolicies.?BreakingthecycleofunevendevelopmentinSouthAfricawillrequirefundamentalchangesininstitutions,includingchangesindemocracy,ownershipstructures,andtheverynatureoftheeconomicsystem.?AnadjustedinstitutionalstructuremightreconfigurethesocialprovisioningprocessinSouthAfricatoaddressracialdivisionsandlingeringinequality.?NelsonMandelaandtheAfricanNationalCongress(ANC)werepersuadedbymainstreameconomistsandSouthAfricanbusinessestopursueneoliberalpolicies.?TheANCimplementedpoliciesthatmadeSouthAfricamoreopentointernationaltradeandfinancialflowsalongwithprivatizationandausterity,otherthanamodestincreaseinsocialexpenditures.?Unfortunately,neoliberalismworsenedtheinequalitycreatedunderapartheidandfailedtostimulatesignificantgrowthanddevelopment.Kollamparambil(2017)?Basedonaconceptualanalysis,thisresearcherarguesthatin-migrationintotheformalsectorofthereceivingareaswillingeneralreduceinequalitywhilein-migrationintotheinformalorunemployedsectorincreasesinequality.?Usingindividualpaneldata,thestudyfurthertestsempiricallyatthedistrictleveltheimpactofin-migrationandfindsthatrisingurbaninequalityinurbanareascanbeattributedatleastinparttorural-urbanmigration.?Thisworksthroughboththewageaswellasemploymentchannel.Theemploymentchannelcanbesaidtohaveastrongerimpactthanthewagechannel.?Theimpactofinternalmigrationonregionalincomeinequalityofthereceivingareashashithertogonelargelyunstudied.Thisdearthofliteratureisespeciallysurprisingbecauseincomeinequalityandin-migrationintourbancentersofgrowtharetwoissuesthatmanydevelopingeconomiesarefacedwithandtacklingtheseissueseffectivelyinvolvesunderstandingtheinteractionsbetweenthesetworelatedphenomena.?Thisstudyisthereforeafirstattempttoanalyzetheimpactofinternalin-migrationonreceivingareasandisplacedinthecontextofSouthAfrica.WilsonandVijay(2020)?Usingabio-ecologicalsystemstheoryofdevelopment,theseresearchersanalyzedtherespectiverolesofgender,socio-economicstatus(determinedbyresourcesathomeandschool),parentalinvolvementandschoolclimateindeterminingeducationalaspirations.?Drawingonanationallyrepresentativesampleof11,969learners(females=5,248;meanage=15.7years)fromtheTrendsinInternationalMathematicsandScienceStudy(TIMSS)andthestatisticalanalysistechniqueofstructuralequationmodelling(SEM),theauthorsinvestigatedtherelationshipsbetweenparentalinvolvement,schoolclimateandlearnereducationalaspirations.?Theresultsofthisstudyshowedthatstudentsfromlowsocio-economicstatus(SES)homesandschoolshadlowereducationalaspirations.?Inaddition,theseresearchersalsofoundpositiverelationshipsbetweenbothpositiveandnegativeschoolclimateandlearneraspirations.Asurprisingfindingwasthatparentalinvolvementdidnothaveanyinfluenceonshapinglearneraspirations.Anextensivebodyofresearchexistsonthebackgroundcharacteristicsthatpredictlearnerachievement;however,inSouthAfrica,littleattentionhasbeenpaidtothelevelofeducationalaspirationsandthefactorsthatshapethelevelofaspirations.?Thefindingsindicateaneedtoimproveeducationalresourcesatschoolsaswellastheschoolclimate,asschoolsmatterforlearnersinlow-incomecountries.?Furthermore,itisimportanttoinformlearnersoftherequirementsfortertiaryducation,sothattheydevelopmorerealisticaspirations.Martins(2017)?Theportionofhouseholdbudgetsallocatedtodifferenttypesofgoodsandservicesprovidesanindicationofthematerialstandardoflivingofapopulation.?Thisstudydiscussesdifferentdefinitionsofpovertyandcomparesthestateofpovertyaccordingtothesedefinitionsinselectedcountries,followedbyananalysisofSouthAfrica\'seconomicpositionintheworldandacomparisonofthehouseholdbudgetsanddemographicprofileofSouthAfricanhouseholdsthatfallintodifferentincomegroupsinordertoidentifythedifferencesbetweenthepoorestandthewealthiesthouseholdsinSouthAfrica.?IncomeinequalityinSouthAfricaisfurtherelucidatedbymeansoftheGinicoefficient.Inaddition,acomparisonisalsomadebetweenthehouseholdbudgetsofthepooresthouseholdswiththeminimumfinanciallivinglevelrequirementsinSouthAfricatomaintaintheirhealthandhaveacceptablestandardsofhygieneandsufficientclothingfortheirneeds.?Householdexpenditurecomprisesexpenditureofprivatehouseholdsongoodsandservices,irrespectiveoftheirdurability.?Intheabsenceofauniversallyacceptedmethodofcalculatingpoverty,householdexpenditurecanbeusedtoprovideanindicationofinequalityofwealthandserveasanindicatorofpoverty.Kollamparambil(2021)?ThisstudyfoundthatwellbeingisconcentratedamongthehigherendoftheincomedistributioninbothcountriesbutthatthelevelofwellbeingconcentrationislowerinSwitzerlandascomparedtoSouthAfrica.?Thedifferencesinthewellbeingconcentrationlevelsofthetwocountriesareduetoboththedifferenceinthelevelsofincomeaswellasthedifferencesinthemarginalutilityofincomeinthetwocountries.?Thedifferencesinthecoefficientsofabsoluteandrelativeincome,contributemoretothedifferencesinwellbeingconcentrationinthetwocountriesthanthelevelsofthesevariables.Thesefindingsindicatethatthelevelofincomeandrelativeincomeisimportantinbetterunderstandingtheimpactofthesevariablesonwellbeinginequality.?Thestudysoughtanswerstothebroaderquestionontheincome-wellbeingnexusthroughaseldomutilizedtechniqueofconcentrationindextomeasureincomerelatedwellbeinginequality.TheanalysisisundertakeninthevastlydifferingincomeandincomeinequalitycontextsofSwitzerlandandSouthAfricatocontrasttherelationshipsindifferentscenariosovera10-yearperiod.?ResultsindicatethatSouthAfrica\'spro-richconcentrationofwellbeingwoulddecreasesubstantiallywithSwissendowments.Ontheotherhand,income-basedconcentrationofwellbeingwouldincreaseinSouthAfricawithSwisscoefficients.Pooley(2016)?Theeducationsectorwasearlyonidentifiedaskeytosocioeconomicempowermentforthepoorandworkingclass.Expenditureoneducationnowamountstonearly20percentofthenationalbudget;however,theimpactofpolicyreformsandbroadspendinghasbeenbluntedbypoorservicedelivery,inefficiency,corruption,andlimitedskillsandcapacityingovernment.?AnethnographiccasestudyofschoolmusickingintheIngwavumadistrictofKwaZulu-Nataldescribessomeofthestrengthsandchallengesassociatedwithmusiceducationinruralareas.?Musiciswidelypracticedasanextracurricularactivitythatdoesnotdeveloptheskillsinmusicliteracyrequiredforentryintotertiaryeducationorthemusicindustry.Bycontrast,studentsatprivateschoolsbenefitfromhighqualityeducationinWesternmusicthroughindependentexaminationboards.Theauthorconcludesthatanegalitarianapproachtomusiceducationwouldreturnthestudyofmusictotheschoolcurriculuminrevisedform?The2012NationalCurriculumStatementaccordsmusicaperipheral(andinsomecases,optional)positioninSouthAfricasBasicEducationsyllabus.?ThebifurcationofthemusicalartseducationsectorinSouthAfricaintoitspublicandprivatedimensionsreproducesinequalityalonglinesofclass,raceandgeography.Indigenousmusicisthriving,butteacherslacktraininginmusicliteracyandhavelimitedresourcesattheirdisposal.Ndimande(2016)?Thisstudyexaminedtheconsequencesofthenewpoliciesofschoolchoiceinpost-apartheidSouthAfricaandthereasonstheyhavelargelyfailedtoachievegreatereducationalequalitytheirstatedpurpose.?Theauthormaintainsthatthedominantreasonforthisliesinthecontinuinginadequateresourcesofmanypoorschoolsandthefailuretoaddressthem.Drawingontheperspectivesofparentswhosechildrenattendschoolsinpoorneighborhoods,knownasthetownships,theauthoralsoarguesthattheresourcesituationintheseschoolsdirectlycontributestopovertyintheirchildrenslives.?Inaddition,theissueofresourcesisinextricablyconnectedtothelargerneoliberalagendaofprivatizationandmarketsthathasinfluencedsocialpolicyinpost-apartheidSouthAfrica.?Neoliberalismineducationhasencouragedschoolchoiceasawaytodesegregateschoolsandreformeducation.Basedonthesetrends,though,theauthorconcludesthatinsteadithascontinuedthemarginalizationofBlackchildrenintownshipschools,andadverselyaffectstheirfuturebylimitingtheireducationalopportunitiesandtheirrighttoqualityeducation.?Theapartheideducationsystemspannedmanydecades.Apartheidwasahegemonicgovernmentsystemdesignedtoenforceracialsegregationandtheinstitutionalizationofwhitesupremacy.?OneofthelawsthatreproducedresourceinequalitiesintownshipschoolswastheGroupAreasActof1952.ThisActenforcedtheresidentialsegregationplanofapartheid.?Ononehand,themajorityofBlackcommunitiesinruralandsemi-ruralareaswereforcefullyrelocatedtosettlementsknownastheBantustans,whichwerearidareaswherenoindustrialoreconomicactivitytookplace.?Ontheother,BlackcommunitiesincitiesandsuburbanareassuchasSophiatowninJohannesburgandDistrictSixinCapeTown,werealsoforcefullyremovedandrelocatedinareasthatbecameknownasthetownshipswhichwerestate-controlledareasontheperipheryofthecities.Dowdall,WardandLund(2017)?Usingnationallyrepresentativedata(N=11,955)fromtheSouthAfricanNationalIncomeDynamicsStudyandtheSouthAfricanIndicesofMultipleDeprivationmodelledatsmall-arealevel,thisstudytestedassociationsbetweenneighborhood-leveldeprivationanddepression,aftercontrollingforindividual-levelcovariates.?Thefindingsthatemergedfromthisstudysupportedthehypothesisthatthereisapositiveassociationbetweenlivinginamoredeprivedneighborhoodanddepression,evenaftercontrollingforindividual-levelcovariates.?ThisstudysuggeststhatalleviatingstructuralpovertycouldreducetheburdenofdepressioninSouthAfrica.?Depressioncontributesmoretotheglobalburdenofmentalandsubstanceabusedisordersthananyothersingledisorderandprojectionsarethatitwillbethesecondleadingcauseofdisabilityintheworldby2020.?Likewise,depressioncontributessubstantiallytotheburdenofdiseaseinSouthAfrica.Littleisknownabouthowneighbor-hoodsaffectthementalhealthofthepeoplelivinginthem.Ragieetal.(2020)?Thiscasestudyof590householdsfromBushbuckridge,SouthAfrica,analysestheeconomicvalueofeachoftheseincomestreamsatthreepoints:whatentersthehousehold,whatisusedandwhatissold.?Twoimportantfindingsemergedfromthisstudy:1)Dependenceonoff-farmcashincomesisfarhigherthanpreviouslysuggestedbycasestudiesintheareaandthebenefitsofemploymentaccruetothosealreadybettereducatedandwealthier.Thissuggeststhatshiftsinoff-farmopportunitieswillexacerbatealreadydeepinequalities.2)Whileenvironmentalproductsandcropsareimportantfordirectuse,theygenerateinsignificantcashincomesfromsales.Thissuggestsaweakeningofthedirectlinksbetweenthelocalecosystemandthissociety,challengingtraditionalnotionsofAfricanruralitybeingintrinsicallylandbased.Land-basedincomestreams,whichincludetheconsumptionandsellingofcrops,livestockandenvironmentalproducts,areinherentinruralhouseholdslivelihoods.However,theoff-farmcashincomestreamprimarilycomposedofmigrantlaborremittances,socialgrants,andsavingsandloansisincreasinginimportanceinmanyregions.Nyoka(2019)?AfterconductingstatisticalanalysisusingStataversion14forWindowswithamultivariatebinarylogisticregressionmodelingtechniqueapplied,thispapertestedandconcludedthatthereisastaticallysignificantrelationshipbetweeneducationallevelsontheone?handandincomelevelsontheotherontheprobabilityofonehavingamobilebankingaccountinSouthAfrica.?Fromapolicyperspective,thisinformationwillassistpolicy-makersinmakingmoreinformeddecisionswithrespecttoeducation,andfromthebankingfraternitypointofviewitwillhelp,theminthedevelopmentsofproductsthataremoreinlinewiththepopulationseducationandincomelevels.Financialinclusionhasrecentlybecomeanissueofconcerntheworldoverforgovernments,policymakers,non?governmentalorganizations(NGOs),andfinancialandnon?financialinstitutionsalike.Inrecentyears,therehasbeengrowingtheoreticalandempiricalworksshowinthestronglinkagesbetweenfinancialdevelopmentwitheconomicgrowthandpovertyalleviationOhmbergerandFichera(2020)?Mentalhealthandpovertyarestronglyinterlinked.Thereisagapintheliteratureontheeffectsofpovertyalleviationprogramsonmentalhealth.TheseresearcherssoughttofillthisgapbystudyingtheeffectofanexogenousincomeshockgeneratedbytheChildSupportGrant,SouthAfrica\'slargestUnconditionalCashTransfer(UCT)programonmentalhealth.?Usingbiennialdataon10,925individualsfromtheNationalIncomeDynamicsStudybetween2008and2014,theresearchersdrewontheprogram\'seligibilitycriteriatoestimateinstrumentalvariableFixedEffectsmodels.?Basedontheiranalysis,theresearchersfoundthatreceivingtheChildSupportGrantimprovesadultmentalhealthby0.822points(ona030scale),4.1%ofthesamplemean.Thecashtransferissubstantialforpoorhouseholds,asitincreaseshouseholdincomebyabout2025%.?ThesefindingsshowthatUCTprogramshavestrongmentalhealthbenefitsforthepooradultpopulation.TheChildSupportGrant(CSG)wasintroducedbytheSouthAfricanGovernmentin1998aspartofthegovernmentalsocialassistanceprogram.TheCSGisanUnconditionalCashTransferandSouthAfrica\'slargestsocialcashtransferprogram,targetingthepoorandvulnerablepopulation.TheCSGaimistoreducepovertyandvulnerabilityamongchildrenfrompoorsocio-economicbackgroundsbymonthlygranttransferstotheirprimarycaregivers,whichinmostcasesisthebiologicalmotherofthechild.Eligibilityforprogramparticipationisdefinedbytwofactors:(1)theageofthechild;and(2)ameans-testofthecaregiverandhis/herspouse\'sincomeandassets.ThecoverageoftheCSGincreasedovertime.Initially,onlychildrenupuntiltheageof7yearsweretargeted,buttheprogramhasbeenprogressivelyextendedovertimetochildrenofageupto18years.Theincomethresholdwasalsoliftedatafasterratethanprice-inflation,fromR2,300(US$172.5)toR3,200(US$240),leadingtoapositiverealappreciationofthegrantvalue.Kollamparambil(2020)?Despiteincreaseinincomeinequality,SouthAfricahasbeenregisteringdecreasedhappinessinequality.Thepaperidentifiesthesignificantdeterminantsofhappinessandhappinessinequalityandfindsthatincomedetermineshappinesslevelaswellashappinessinequalityatbothindividualandaggregatelevel.?ThesimilarityoffindingsattheindividualandaggregatelevelsindicatesthatthehappinessincomeparadoxnotedinliteraturedoesnotseemtoexistwithintheSouthAfricancontext.Attheaggregatelevel,incomeinequalityhassignificantnegativeandpositiveimpactonhappinesslevelsandhappinessinequalityrespectively.?Whilebothhappinessaswellasincomelevelsshowincreasingtrendsinrecentyears,theinequalitytrendsdiffersubstantiallybetweenincomeandhappinessmeasures.Thepaper\'sfindingsreinforcetheargumentthathappinessinequalitymaybeausefulsupplementarymeasureofinequalityinsociety.?Thefindingofincreasinghappinesslevelsanddecreasinghappinessinequalityinthebackdropofincreasingincomeinequality,isindicativethatabsoluteeffectratherthanrelativeeffectofincomedominateshappinessandhappinessinequalityatthecountrylevelinSouthAfrica.NtulandKwenda(2014)?ThisstudyexaminedtheroleoflaborunionsinexplainingthisphenomenonamongAfricanmengiventhatlabormarketsareatthecoreofincomeinequalityinSouthAfrica.?Usingcross-sectionaldatadrawnfromLaborForceSurveysfor20012010,theseresearchersidentifiedamonotonicallydecliningunionwagepremium.Further,theresultsindicatethatunionshavebothcompressionaryanddisequalizingeffectsonwages.?Thedisequalizingeffectdominatesthecompressionaryeffect,suggestingthatunionshaveaneteffectofincreasingwageinequalityamongAfricanmeninSouthAfrica.?Thisfindingimpliesthatthereisscopeforunionstoreduceinequalitythroughinitiativesthatpromotewagecompression.?OneAchilles\'heelofpost-ApartheidSouthAfricaisthegrowingintra-racialincomeinequality,particularlyamongAfricans.?Thatanunequaldispersionoflabormarketearningsliesattheheartofanextraordinarilylargeandincreasingproblemofincomeinequalityinpost-ApartheidSouthAfricacannotbeoveremphasized.Morerecently,thishasmanifestedthroughgrowingintra-racialincomeinequality,wheretheincreaseisrelativelyhigherforAfricansthanotherraces.Henceconclusionsaboundthatincreasingintra-AfricanearningsinequalitydictatestheevolutionofaggregateincomeinequalityinthecountryWeimann(2019)?InformalsettlementsarebecomingmoreentrenchedwithinsomeSouthAfricancitiesastheurbanpopulationcontinuestogrow.Characterizedbypoorhousingconditionsandinadequateservices,informalsettlementsareassociatedwithanincreasedriskofdiseaseandill-health;however,littleisknownabouthowinformalsettlementupgradingimpactshealthovertime.?Asystematizedliteraturereviewwasconductedtoexploreexistingevidenceandknowledgegapsontheassociationbetweeninformalsettlementcharacteristicsandhealthandtheimpactofinformalsettlementupgradingonhealth,withinSouthAfrica.?Themeta-analysisfoundthatinformalsettlementsposehealthrisksparticularlytovulnerablepopulationssuchaschildren,theelderly,andpeoplewithsuppressedimmunesystems,andarelikelytoaggravategender-relatedinequalities.?Duetothecomplexinteractionbetweenhealthandfactorsofthebuiltenvironment,thereisaneedforfurtherresearchutilizingasystemsapproachtogenerateevidencethatinvestigatestheinterlinkedfactorsthatlongitudinallyinfluencehealthinthecontextofinformalsettlementupgradinginrapidlygrowingcitiesworldwide.?Thesefindingshighlightagrowingbodyofresearchinvestigatingthewaysinwhichcompletephysical,mentalandsocialhealthareinfluencedbythephysicalhousingstructure,thepsychosocialhomeenvironmentandthefeaturesoftheneighborhoodandcommunityinthecontextofinformalsettlements.However,thereisapaucityoflongitudinalresearchinvestigatingthetemporalimpactofinformalsettlementupgradingorhousingimprovementsonhealthoutcomesoftheseurbanresidents.Black(2016)ThereislittleneedtoexplainthemotivationtoworkonstrategiestoraiseemploymentinSouthAfrica.Thecountrysappallingunemploymentfiguresaredepressinglyfamiliarandunderpinhighlevelsofpovertyandsocialdislocation.Policiesareneededwhichwilldeliberatelysteertheeconomyontoamoreemployment-intensivegrowthpath.Thesepoliciesneedtotakegreateraccountoftheperniciousandenduringlegacyofapartheid.Muchworkontheemploymentproblemisfocusedonraisinggrowthratesoronfixingthelabormarket;butimportantastheseare,anemicgrowthandlabor-marketrigiditiesdonotprovideacompleteexplanationPolisetal.(2021)?ThisstudyexaminesthereasonswhywealthinequalitiesinSouthAfricaundertheAfricanNationalCongresshaveremainedsopersistentlystubbornandhowitispossiblethattherevolutionarymovement,ostensiblydevotedtotheidealsoftheFreedomCharter,hasnotmanagedtoradicallyimprovematters25yearsafterthefallofapartheid.?WhilesomecommentatorshaveclaimedthatSouthAfricaisanemergingglobalpower,itissimultaneouslythemostextremedocumentedcaseofinequality,intermsofbothincomeandwealth,intheworld.SouthAfricaisarguablythemoststubborncaseofinequalityincontemporaryhistory,witheffortstoreducethishavinglargelyfailed.Inaddition,inequalityhasactuallywidenedpost1994.?BasedonaseriesofinterviewsconductedwithSouthAfricanacademicsandmembersofcivilsociety,thearticleprovidessomeanswerstothisconundrumbytracingtherootsoftheproblemtoreproductionmechanismsthataredeeplyentrenchedintheeconomyofSouthAfrica,itspoliticsanditseducationalsystem.Numerousscholarshaveofferedamyriadofassessmentsofthisconundrum,yetnoclearconsensushasemergedonthecausesofthepost-apartheidincreaseininequality.Consideringallthepolicyeffortstoreversethisdismaltrend,thisisanadditionalpuzzleandasourceofembarrassmentforthegovernmentforwhomequalityidealslaidoutintheFreedomCharterremainavitalpartofitspoliticalheritageandwhofoughtthe1994electioncampaignonthesloganABetterLifeForAll.Ozler(2007)?In2000prices,adjustedforprovincialcostoflivingdifferences),atleast58%ofallSouthAfricansand68%oftheAfricanpopulationwereinpovertyin1995,whilepovertywasvirtuallynonexistentforwhites.?TheGinicoefficientofexpenditureswas0.56,makingSouthAfricaoneofthemostunequalcountriesintheworld.Thecountryalsoinheritedvastinequalitiesineducation,health,andbasicinfrastructure,suchasaccesstosafewater,sanitation,andhousing.Forinstance,whileonlyaquarterofAfricanshadaccesstopipedwaterintheirhouses,Asiansandwhiteshaduniversalaccess.?ApartheidinSouthAfricaofficiallycametoanendwiththedemocraticallyheldelectionsin1994,leavinginitswakeapopulationwithvastinequalitiesacrossracialgroups.?ManyotheraspectsoftheSouthAfricanconomyalsoposedifficultchallenges.CrimeissoprevalentthatitleadstoemigrationofSouthAfricanprofessionalsofallpopulationgroups,possiblyalsodiscouraginginvestmentandstiflinggrowth.?Thebroadunemploymentrateisestimatedtobe30%40%andhasbeensteadilyincreasingsince1995,makingSouthAfricasunemploymentrateoneofthehighestintheworld.OldfieldandTucker(2019?AnyanalysisofSouthAfricangenderedperformances,identitiesandinequalitiesconfrontpastandpresentexperiencesofandstruggleswithrace,colonialism,post-colonialdevelopmentandsexuality.Thesetensionsshapegenderedgeographicalwork,highlightingtheimportanceofhistoriesofrace,class,andsexuality,aswellasthewaysinwhichgenderitselfcanbeapproachedasananalyticalcategoryandepistemicframinginSouthAfrica.?Theseresearchersfocusontwoavenuesthathaveengagedscholarssincetheendofapartheid,namely:genderanddevelopment;andgenderandgeographiesofsexualities.Theformerarticulatestheparticularwaysthatthehistoricalspatiallyexclusionarytrajectoryofthecountryhasimpactedespeciallyonwomenandtheirabilitytoengagewithstateandnationalbuildingprojectspost-apartheid.ThelatterexploreshowSouthAfricangeographies(despitethecountry\'sprogressivepost-apartheidconstitutionwithregardtoLGBTrights)continuetoreflectand(attimes)enablespatialsegregationandinequalitiesrelatedtogender.?AkeystrengthofresearchinSouthAfricangenderscholarshipisthatitcomplicatesandchallengeshowpolicymakersmightapproachgenderandgender-basedinequalities,andthediversewaysinwhichgendercategoriesandframingscanbeimagined,deployedandtroubledinpost-colonialstatesandcities.Kerr,DurheimandDixon(2017)?Socialpsychologiststypicallyconceptualizeintergroupprocessesintermsofunequalpairsofsocialcategories,suchasanadvantagedmajority(e.g.,Whites)andadisadvantagedminority(e.g.,Blacks).Thistwo?groupparadigmmayobscuretheworkingsofintergrouppowerbyoverlooking:(1)theuniquedynamicsofintergrouprelationsinvolvingthreeormoregroups,and(2)thewaysometwo?grouprelationshipsfunctionasstrategicalliancesthatderivemeaningfromtheirlocationwithinawiderrelationalcontext.?DiscursiveanalysisofinterviewaccountsofthenatureandoriginsofthisviolenceshowshowanostensiblybinaryxenophobicconflictbetweenforeignandSouthAfricanfarmlaborerswaspartiallyconstitutedthroughbothgroupsrelationshipwithathirdpartywhowereneithervictimsnorperpetratorsoftheactualviolence,namelywhitefarmers.?Theresearchersanalysiswasbasedonafieldstudyconductedinagrape?farmingtowninSouthAfricain2009,focusingonanepisodeofxenophobicviolenceinwhichaZimbabweanfarmworkercommunitywasforciblyevictedfromtheirhomesbytheirSouthAfricanneighbors.?Theresearchershighlightsomepotentialpoliticalconsequencesofdefaultingtoatwo?groupparadigminintergroupconflictstudies.NwosuandOvenubi(2021)?InresponsetotheCovid-19pandemic,theSouthAfricangovernmenthasimposedanumberofmeasuresaimedatcontrollingthepandemic,chiefbeinganationwidelockdown.?Thishasresultedinincomelossforindividualsandfirms,withvulnerablepopulations(lowearners,thoseininformalandprecariousemployment,etc.)morelikelytobeadverselyaffectedthroughjoblossesandtheresultingincomeloss.Incomelosswilllikelyresultinreducedabilitytoaccesshealthcareandanutritiousdiet,thusadverselyaffectinghealthoutcomes.?Giventheforegoing,theseresearchershypothesizedthattheeconomicdislocationcausedbythecoronaviruswilldisproportionatelyaffectthehealthofthepoor.?TheresultsofthisstudyindicatethatbeingAfrican(relativetowhite),percapitahouseholdincomeandhouseholdexperienceofhungersignificantlypredictedincome-relatedhealthinequalitiesintheCovid-19era(contributing130%,46%and9%respectivelytotheinequalities),whilebeinginpaidemploymenthadanontrivialbutstatisticallyinsignificantcontribution(13%)tohealthinequality.?Basedonthesefindings,theauthorsconcludethatgiventhesignificanceandmagnitudeofrace,hunger,incomeandemploymentindeterminingsocioeconomicinequalitiesinpoorhealth,addressingracialdisparitiesandhunger,incomeinequalityandunemploymentwilllikelymitigateincome-relatedhealthinequalitiesinSouthAfricaduringtheCovid-19pandemic.?TheCovid-19virushasresultedinanenormousdislocationofsocietyespeciallyinSouthAfrica.?UsingthefifthwaveoftheNationalIncomeDynamicsStudy(NIDS)datasetconductedin2017andthefirstwaveoftheNIDS-CoronavirusRapidMobileSurvey(NIDS-CRAM)datasetconductedinMay/June2020,theseresearchersestimatedincome-relatedhealthinequalitiesinSouthAfricabeforeandduringtheCovid-19pandemic.?Healthwasadichotomizedself-assessedhealthmeasure,withfairandpoorhealthcategorizedas\"poor\"health,whileexcellent,verygoodandgoodhealthwerecategorizedas\"better\"health.Householdpercapitaincomewasusedastherankingvariable.Concentrationcurvesandindiceswereusedtodepicttheincome-relatedhealthinequalities.?Inaddition,theresearchersalsodecomposedtheCovid-19eraincome-relatedhealthinequalityinordertoascertainthesignificantpredictorsofsuchinequality.AstheinformationpresentedinTable__aboveclearlyindicates,manyofthecausesofSouthAfricascurrentstatusasthemostunequalnationintheworldpredate1994andhavesincesimplymorphedintoalternativeandevenmoresseverewaysinwhichtheseinequalitiesareperpetuated.Becauseitrequiressometimefortimelyissuestowendtheirwayintothepeer-reviewedliteratureandthesituationonthegroundinSouthAfricaatpresentishighlydynamic,itwasalsoimportanttodeterminewhatthemainstreammediahasbeenrecentlyreportingaboutinequalitiesinthecountryandthesearesetforthinTable__below.Table__SummaryofrecentmainstreammediaarticlesandreportsconcerningcurrentinequalitiesinSouthAfricaSourceKeyfindingsCommentsLevy,HirschandNaidoo(2021)?SouthAfricawasoneofthe1990siconiccasesofdemocratization.Yetstartinginthemid-2000s,thecountrybegantoexperienceadisruptivecollisionbetweenitsstrongpoliticalinstitutionsandmassiveeconomicinequality.Thecollisionintensifiedacrossthe2010s,resultingineconomicstagnationandincreasingthreatstoinstitutionalintegrity.?SouthAfricasexperiencesuggestsfourpotentiallyusefullessonsforthemanycountriesstrugglingtomaintainapositivesocial,political,andeconomictrajectoryinthefaceofhighorrisinginequality.1.Thetrajectoryofchangeisaknife-edge.Thereispotentialtocreatevirtuouscirclesofpositiveinteractionsamongideas,institutions,andeconomicgrowth.Buttherealsoissubstantialriskthatunaddresseddistributionalimbalancescouldcauseacumulativedownwardspiralofdecline.2.Ideasmatterahopefulvisionofchange,whencombinedwithagoodenoughresponsivenesstodistributionalconcerns,canbesufficienttolaunchapositivetrajectory.3.Bothideasandinstitutionscanbeshieldsagainstadversitybutonlyuptoapoint.Hopefulideascanevokepositiveagencyandhelpmobilizepeopleforcollectiveaction.Institutionscanfunctionasshockabsorbers.However,bothideasandinstitutionsneedreinforcement,includingbyaddressingfesteringimbalancesineconomicandpoliticalpower.4.Initiatinganewcycleofrenewalrequiresasetofideasandactionsthataddressinagoodenoughwaytheimbalancesresultingfromderailment.?Forthefirstfifteenyearsofdemocracy,SouthAfricaenjoyedtheadvantagesofbotheffectiveinstitutionsandasharedwillingnessofstakeholdersbelievedinthepowerofcooperation.Thisenabledthecountrytomovebeyondcounterproductiveconflictandpursuewin-winoutcomes.?Growthbegantoaccelerate,whichcreatednewopportunitiesforexpandingthemiddleclass.Increasedfiscalspacemadeitpossibletobroadenaccesstopublicservicesandtosocialgrants,whichreducedabsolutepoverty.?Therewere,however,somestarklimitationsinwhatwasachieved.Gainsforthepoorestdidlittletoaltertheirdifficulteconomicandsocialrealities.?Lessthanaquarterofthetotalpopulation,includingessentiallyallwhiteSouthAfricans,enjoyedastandardoflivingthatwasmiddleclassorbetter.?TherewasamplereasonforthemajorityofSouthAfricanstofeelthat,notwithstandingthepromisesofmutualbenefit,thedeckremainedstackedagainstthem.ThisincreasedthevulnerabilityofSouthAfricaspoliticalsettlement.Winning(2021)?SouthAfricanPresidentCyrilRamaphosasaidthegoverningpartycouldandshouldhavedonemoretopreventcorruptionunderhispredecessorJacobZuma,inhighlyanticipatedtestimonytoagraftinquiry.?Ramaphosa,Zuma\'sformerdeputy,wasappearinginhiscapacityascurrentleaderoftheAfricanNationalCongress(ANC),ararecaseofasittingpresidentgivingevidenceonrecentallegedwrongdoingbymembersofhisownparty.?RamaphosaaddedthatcorrosivecorruptionhadhurttheANCssupportamongvoters,sixmonthsbeforlocalgovernmentelectionsatwhichthepartywilllooktoimproveonitsworstelectionresultssincetheendofapartheid.?OppositionpartiesheldagatheringoutsidethebuildingwheretheinquirywasbeingheldandparticipantssaidRamaphosashouldpersonallyshouldersomeoftheblame.Ramaphosa,theANC\'sdeputyleaderfrom2012to2017anddeputypresidentfrom2014until2018,hasmadethefightagainstgraftoneofhiscallingcards.?AfterhewonacloselyfoughtbattlefortheANCleadershipagainstZuma\'sex-wifeinDecember2017,hisalliesinthepartyengineeredZuma\'souster,allowinghimtotakeoverasheadofstateinFebruary2018,beforeZuma\'ssecondfive-yeartermwasduetoend.?The\"statecapture\"inquiryisprobingallegationsofgraftduringZuma\'snineyearsinpower,includingthatZumaallowedbusinessmenclosetohim-brothersAtul,AjayandRajeshGupta-toinfluencepolicyandwinlucrativegovernmentcontracts.?Overseveraldaysoftestimonyattheinquiry,RamaphosaisexpectedtobeaskedwhatheknewaboutallegedlycorruptpracticeswhileservingalongsideZumaandwhyhedidnotacttostopthem.?TheinquirywassetupduringZumasfinalweeksinoffice.Zumaappearedatitbrieflyin2019butdefiedasummonsandcourtordertogivemoreevidenceearlierthisyear.TheinquiryslawyersareseekingZumasimprisonmentasaresult.SpeculationonWealthTaxCouldContributetoFurtherEmigrationofSouthAfrica\'sWealthy(2021)?SouthAfricahasbecomethelatestcountryrumoredtointroduceawealthtaxwitharecentstudybytheWorldInequalityLabdemonstratingthatthetaxcouldgenerateupto160billionrand($10.7billiondollars).Similarly,expertsattheUniversityoftheWitwatersrandinJohannesburghavesuggestedestablishingaprogressivewealthtaxforthoseearningabove3.6millionrandwhichaccountsfor354,000high-earnersinthecountry.Whiletherehavebeennoplansasyettoestablishthelevy,thenationhasadvancedonits\'highwealthindividualtaxpayer\'division.?AnnouncedduringtheFebruary2021BudgetSpeech,thesegmentisaimedatcrackingdownonindividualswhohavenotdeclaredalltheirincomedueto\'complexfinancialagreements\'.?TheSouthAfricanRevenueService(SARS)hasalreadybegunidentifyingwealthycitizenswhofallunderthisbracket,withmanyexpectedtoreceivetheirfirstletterbyMay2021.?ExtensivestudieshaveshownthatSouthAfrica\'swealthypopulationcontinuestodeclinewithroughly1,900millionairesleavingsincethelastfigurerecordedin2020.AccordingtoNewWorldWealth\'sAfricareport,atotalof4,200highnet-worthindividualshaveleftthecountryoverthelastdecade.Withthepossibilityofhighertaxesforthewealthy,thisnumberislikelytogrow.?Asmanycountriesattempttorecoverfromtheeconomicfalloutofthepandemic,theintroductionofawealthtaxhasbecomeanincreasinglypopularsolutiontotacklethis.Whilesomeexpertshaveconcludedthatawealthtaxcouldbeashort-termtooltoraiserevenue,manyothershavealsohighlightedtheconcernsattachedtothetaxation.?TheCaribbeanhasbecomeanidealdestinationforSouthAfricanswhowanttoremaininasimilarenvironmentwithoutthedisadvantagesoftheirhomecountry.TheregionisresponsibleforpioneeringtheCitizenshipbyInvestmentProgrammeaninitiativethatencouragesforeigninvestorstocontributetotheeconomyofanationinexchangeforcitizenshipandtheassociatedbenefits.Mlaba(2020)?AnewreportfromOxfamSouthAfricadetailsthecountrysdeepeninginequalitiesbyshowingtheincomeandlifestyledifferencesbetweenwhitemenandwomen,andBlackmenandwomen.?In2019,theWorldBankrecognizedSouthAfricaasthemostunequalcountryintheworld,meaningthatSouthAfricaseconomydoesnotequallybenefitallofitscitizens.TheWorldBankalsoreportedthattherichest20%ofpeopleinSouthAfricacontrolalmost70%oftheresources.Itisnotjusttheincomeinequalitythatisworrying,butalsounequalaccesstoopportunitiesandessentialservices.Friedman(2021)?Studentpovertyensuresthatinequalityispassedfromonegenerationtothenext.Ifonlythosewhohaveenoughareassurednotonlyofaneducationbutalsoofthematerialsupportneededtodowell,thegapbetweenthewell-offandtherestwillcontinuetogrowanduniversitieswillcontinuetoactasinequalityfactories.?Toinsistthatnooneshouldbedeniedaneducationbecausetheyhavenomoneyistodemandconcreteactionagainstpovertyandinequality.Afurtherplusisthat,ifthesedemandsaremet,themoneyislikelytocomeoutofuniversitybudgetsandsowillnotmeanlessforschoolsorotherpublicservices.Ifwewantamoreequalcountry,nooneshouldbedeniedahighereducationbecausetheycantaffordtopayforit.Whetheryougotouniversityandachieveadegreeshoulddependonyouracademicability,notthesizeofyourfamilysbankbalance.Theproblemofstudentpovertyrunsdeep,asthousandscannotaffordthreemealsaday,whichmakesitfarmoredifficulttostudy.Daley(2021)?SouthAfricansnegotiatedademocracythatreplacedtheparliamentarysupremacyoftheapartheiderawithconstitutionalsupremacy.Thenewconstitutioncontainsabillofrightswiththeunusualinclusionofsocio-economicrightsalongsideliberalrights.Thisforegroundedhumandignityrelativetofreedomandequality,andnon-racialismasaprinciple.?Non-racialismisSouthAfricasuniquecontributiontotheglobalwaragainstracismbecauseitstrategicallyunifiessocietybeyondraceindefianceofapartheidsimposedracialdifferences.Thisnecessarilyinvolvesactivelycombatingracism.?TheglobalreverenceforSouthAfricaasacountrythatcouldgenerateanalternativemeaningofwhatourworldmightbehasdissipated.Anti-constitutionpessimismandopportunismhasbeenontherise.Alackofmeaningfulredistributionofwealthhasprovidedanopportunityforpoliticianstoproclaimthatconstitutionaldemocracyhasfailed.ThisistrueforpeopleinsideaswellasoutsidetherulingAfricanNationalCongress(ANC).?Scholarsinfluencedbydecolonialtheorieshavecriticizedtheconstitutionalorderasaformofneo-apartheidthatmerelyperpetuateswhiteprivilege.Non-racialismhasbeendismissedascolor-blindnessthathindersthecorrectionofrace-basedinequalities.?Inthe1990s,acommonlyheldviewwasthatSouthAfricahadachievedamiraclebecauseofitsrelativelypeacefulpoliticaltransitionfromapartheidtoinclusivedemocracyin1994.?ThemiracleconsistedofSouthAfricanstalkingtheirwayoutofdecadesofincreasinglybrutalapartheidrule.Theystruckadealwherebythewhiteminorityrelinquishedpowertoaraciallyinclusivegovernmentinaconstitutionaldemocracy.SouthAfricaremainsanationofinsidersandoutsiders,27yearsafterdemocracy(2021)?SinceSouthAfricaishighlyunequalandremainsdividedintoinsidersandoutsidersthosewhobenefitfromthemarketeconomyandthosewhocantwemightexpectitspoliticstobealoudbattlebetweenthosewhohaveandthosewhodont.Mostcommentatorsbelieveitis.?WithinthegoverningAfricanNationalCongress(ANC),abattleragesbetweentheradicaleconomictransformationforces,whopurporttochampiontheinterestsofthepoormajority,andtheirmarket-friendlyopponents.Outsideit,thethirdbiggestparty,theEconomicFreedomFighters(EFF),someintheANCallianceandtheadvocatesofblackconsciousnessandpan-Africanismareassumedtospeakforthosewholiveinpoverty.?Overthepastfewyears,thecountryhaswitnessedafuriousdebateoverwhetherthegovernmentshouldbeabletoexpropriatelandwithoutcompensation.Onlyonegrouphasbeenignoredthemillionsoflandlesspeoplewhohavethegreateststakeintheoutcome.?DuringthefirstyearofCovid-19,adebateragedoverwhetherlockdownmeasureswereneeded.Theofficialopposition,theDemocraticAlliance,echoedtheglobalright-wingbydemandingthatallactivitybeallowed.TheEFFinsistedthatnothingshouldbeopened.TheANCclaimedtoadoptascientificapproachinwhichpublichealthandtheeconomysneedswerebalanced.?Noneofthemspokeforandtothemajoritywhowereforcedtotravelontaxiswhichtheyknewmightspreadthevirus,toearnincomesinwayswhichmightinfectthem,andwhoseneedwastofindawaytofeedtheirfamilieswithoutfallingill.Insiderpoliticsshapesanotherconflictwhichdividesleftandrightthedemandforfreehighereducation.ThisisarallyingcryoftheleftwhichisdenouncedbyopponentsasaMarxistassaultonthemarketeconomy.Buttheleftdemandboilsdowntoinsistingthatthechildrenofthecorporateandprofessionaleliteshouldbeeducatedatpublicexpense.This,would,ofcourse,meanthatlessmoneywouldbeavailabletoaddresstheneedsofpeoplelivinginpoverty.Therearemanyotherexampleswhichunderlinearealityinwhichno-onespeaksfortheoutsidersexceptsomelocalorganizationswhichareignoredbythemainstreamdebate.Itiswhypoliciesaimedatendingtheexclusionoftheoutsidersoratleastathelpingthemtosurviveusuallyfail.Theyareproductsofwhatinsiderpoliticsthinkthemajorityneed,notwhattheoutsiderswant.MajorBEEchangesarecomingforsomeofSouthAfricasbiggestindustries(2021)?WhiletherearevariousdriversoflocalempowermentandonershiprequirementsinAfrica,onekeydriverappearstobegainingground:nationalinterestempowerment.Thereisagrowingemphasisonregulatingownershipineconomicsectorsandactivitiesthathistoricallyhavenotbeenregulated.?TheauthorcitesSouthAfricasprivatesecurityindustryandthefactthatthegovernmenthasraisedconcernsthatsignificantforeignownershipinprivatesecuritycompaniescouldposeathreattonationalsecurity.SouthAfricawhichissaidtohaveoneofthelargestprivatesecurityindustriesintheworldisgearinguptointroducelocalownershiprequirementsintheindustry.?ThePrivateSecurityIndustryRegulationAmendmentBillproposesthatatleast51%oftheownershipofbothexistingandnewsecurityservicesprovidersmustbeheldbySouthAfricancitizens.Thebillhasbeenpendingsince2012andhasyettobesignedintolawbythepresident.therehasalsobeenaflurryofregulatoryactivityinthetelecommunicationsandbroadcastingservices,withmostofthechangesdesignedtoensurelocalparticipationinnewtelecomsnetworks.?OnApril1,2021,theIndependentCommunicationsAuthorityofSouthAfrica(Icasa)announcednewregulationsaimedatpromotinghistoricallydisadvantagedSouthAfricansintheICTsector.Amongthechangesisarequirementforlicenseestocomplywiththemandatoryequityownershiprequirements,30%equityownershipbyblackpeopleandlevel4BBEEEstatus.?TheregulationsalsoestablishpenaltiesofuptoR5millionor10%ofthelicenseesannualturnoverwherealicenseefailstomaintainthemandatoryminimumrequirement.?Inaddition,SouthAfricaisalsorevisitingitsownershiprequirementsinbroadcastingandtelecommunications.Itsdraftregulationsproposesettingnewbroad-basedblackeconomicempowerment(B-BBEE)ownershipforboththosesectors.?Untilrelativelyrecently,restrictionsonforeignparticipationonthecontinenttendedtobelimitedandfocusedonafewbig-ticketsectors,suchasaviation,logistics,mining,oilandgasandbroadcastingandtelecommunications.Now,restrictionsarealsobeingfoundinsectorsthatwerenotpreviouslyregulated.?Thevarietyofregulationsandproposedchangescanmakeinvestmentdecisionsquitecomplicated,especiallyforinvestorswithcross-borderoperations.Inturn,Africangovernmentsaregenerallyawarethat,amidintensedomesticpressuretofacilitatelocalcitizeninclusionandparticipation,thereisanimportantrolefordirectforeigninvestmenttoplayineconomicgrowth.?Abalancemustbefoundtoavoidthepotentialunintendedconsequenceofconstrainedeconomicgrowth.Daley(2021)?Citizenangeraboutcorruption,aconstantthemeinSouthAfricanpoliticaldebate,reactstoaveryrealproblem.Thiswasunderlinedrecentlybynewsthatwell-connectedpeoplehadenrichedthemselvesattheexpenseofeffortstocontainCOVID-19.Whatisnotrealisthewidespreadbeliefthatcorruptionisbothnewandeasytofix.?ReactionstocorruptionportrayitasaproductofAfricanNationalCongress(ANC)rule(ormajorityruleforthosewhoclingtotheprejudicethatblackpeoplecannotgovern).Inthisview,itwilldisappearwhenthegoverningpartygetsseriousaboutcorruptionorlosespower.?Inreality,however,corruptionhasbeenaconstantfeatureofSouthAfricanpoliticallifeformuchofthepast350years.Itisdeeplyembeddedanditwilltakeaconcertedeffort,overyears,notdays,todefeatit.Themostcorruptperiodinthecountryshistorywasthelastfewyearsofapartheid,whentheattempttocombatthesuccessfulinternationalsanctionscampaignmadecorruption,protectedbygovernmentsecrecy,thecoregovernmentstrategy.Thiswasoftendonewiththecollusionofprivatebusinesses.WhatyoungpeoplehavetosayaboutraceandinequalityinSouthAfrica(2020)?YoungSouthAfricansarebeingsocializedintoahighlyracializedsocietyandexperienceseveredisparities.Expectingthemtoeradicateracismwithoutdismantlingmaterialinequalitiesisadeferralofadultresponsibility.?Youngpeopleinvolvedinthestudyweredeeplyawareofinequality.Forthem,reducinginequalitywasapriorityifthecountrywastomovetowardsabetterfuture.?Itisnotablethatnon-racialismwasnotaconceptvolunteeredbyanyofthestudentsasafutureideal,despiteitbeingaconstitutionalprincipleinSouthAfrica.?Atpresentthereislittleclarityonthemeaningofnon-racialism.Itisequatedtoamultiplicityofideas,amongthemmobilizationagainstapartheid,multiracialism,multiculturalism,nation-building,andrace-blindness.?Whatstudentsdidwanteradicatedfromtheirutopiawasracialdiscriminationandracism.Themeaningstheyattachedtoraceshifteddependingontheconversation,forexample,racewhenitrelatedtoracialquotasasopposedtoracewhenitrelatedtoculture,identityorpolitics.?Inaddition,racialidentitiesplayedanimportantroleintheseyoungpeoplessenseofself;however,somethoughtitistheweirdestthingeverthatpeoplesitinracegroupsduringlunchbreaks.Theymakesenseofthisbyexplainingthatpeoplesitwithotherswhosharetheirculture.UsingraceandcultureasproxiesforeachotherisverymuchpartoftheSouthAfricanexperienceofracialization.?Thecommitmenttoracialidentities,however,wasmorecomplexthanitfirstappeared.Therewasanuneasinessbetweenacceptingandfeelingprideinracialidentities,andnotwantingthemtocountasmeasuresofsocialvalue.Theyfrequentlyvocalizedarejectionofracialstereotypesandracism.?UsingamethodologycalledDreamingWorkshops,thisstudyexploredhowGrade11students,ofaround16and17yearsold,fromfivedifferentschoolsintheSouthAfricancoastalcityofDurbanimaginedrace,racismandnon-racialisminautopianfuture.?Thefiveschoolsthatparticipatedinthisstudy,threegovernmentandtwoprivate,arelocatedinamiddle-class,formerlywhiteareainDurban.Theschoolshave,onaverage,adiversebutmostlymiddle-classstudentbody,withsomestudentstravellingfromtownshipstoattendclass.?Underapartheidtownshipswerepoorlyresourcedandunder-servicedresidentialspacesdesignatedforpeopleracializedasblack.?Eachschoolinthestudyhadapproximately20studentsperclass.Oneschoolmarketsitselfasgirls-only,oneasboys-only,theotherthreeareopentoallgenders.Jim(2021)?Duringthepandemicatleast1.4millionworkerslosttheirjobs,raisingtheexpandeddefinitionofunemploymentratetoastaggering42.6percent.?MorejoblossesareexpectedbecauseSOEsarebeingactivelybeingrestructuredforthebenefitofprivatecapital.ThousandsofworkershavesufferedjustsothatcorruptcapitalistcroniesoftheANCcancontinuetoenrichthemselves,attheexpenseoftheworkingclass.?Atthesametime,thousandsoffamiliessufferedduringlockdownbecauseofnon-paymentofTemporaryEmploymentReliefScheme(TERS)causedbymismanagementandcorruptionofgovernmentofficials.?ThegoverningANChasbeenadismalfailureinaddressingthemostimportantchallengefacingourcountry,namelyunemployment,povertyandinequality,andthiswasthecasebeforecovid-19arrived.?TheANChasbetrayeditshistoricmissioninordertopandertothedemandsofneo-liberalfactionsofcapital.Treasuryisleadingtheattackagainsttheworkingclassbyimplementinganausteritybudgetwithdrasticcostcuttingmeasureswhicharedirectlytargetingordinaryworkingclassfamilies.?TheNationalUnionofMetalworkersofSouthAfricaisnotcelebratingFreedomDayonApril27,2021becausethereisverylittlefortheworking-classmajorityofthiscountrytocelebrate.?In1994theBlackandAfricanmajorityparticipatedinelectionsfortheveryfirsttime,followingdecadesofoppressiverulebytheracistapartheidstate.Itwasahistoricalmomentforourpeopleasmillionsqueuedfortheveryfirsttimetomaketheirmark,inthecountrysfirstdemocraticelections.SouthAfricansbelievedthatbymakingasimplemarkontheballotsheet,centuriesofcolonialsubjugationandsufferingwouldbebroughttoanendandbelievedthatdemocracywouldmeanequalityandfreedomforeveryone.?Unfortunately,historyhasshownhowwrongtheywere.Twenty-sevenyearsaftertheworkingclasspaidtheultimatepricewiththeirbloodtoendtheapartheidsystem,theAfricanmajorityremainsenslavedbythebondageofpoverty,unemploymentandcripplinginequality.SouthAfrica:Brokenandunequaleducationperpetuatingpovertyandinequality(2020)?TheSouthAfricaneducationsystem,characterizedbycrumblinginfrastructure,overcrowdedclassroomsandrelativelypooreducationaloutcomes,isperpetuatinginequalityandasaresultfailingtoomanyofitschildren,withthepoorhardesthit.?TheAmnestyInternationalreportparticularlyhighlightspoorinfrastructureinpublicschoolsincludingsanitationwhichhastragicallyresultedinthedeathoftwochildreninpitlatrinesinrecentyears.?ThereportalsonotedthatinorderforSouthAfricatocomplywithbothitsownconstitutionalandinternationalhumanrightsobligationswithrespecttoeducation,majorchangeisneededurgently.?Therighttoqualityeducationincludeshavingaschoolwherelearnersaresafetolearnandhavetheadequateinfrastructureandfacilitiestodoso,butthisisnottherealityformanylearnersinthecontry.?Theresultofthismodern-daySouthAfricaisthatachildsexperienceofeducationstillverymuchdependsonwheretheyareborn,howwealthytheyare,andthecoloroftheirskin.?AreportbyAmnestyInternational,BrokenandUnequal:TheStateofEducationinSouthAfricacallsonthegovernmenttourgentlyaddressanumberofendemicfailingsintheeducationalsysteminordertoguaranteetherighttoadecenteducationforeverychildinSouthAfrica.?Thereportdetailshowtheeducationsystemcontinuestobedoggedbystarkinequalitiesandchronicunderperformancethathavedeeprootsinthelegacyofapartheid,butwhicharealsonotbeingeffectivelytackledbythecurrentgovernment.?Manyschoolsandthecommunitiestheyservecontinuetolivewiththeconsequencesofthepoliticalandeconomicdecisionsmadeduringtheapartheiderawherepeopleweresegregatedaccordingtotheirskincolor,withschoolsservingwhitecommunitiesproperlyresourced.Mlaba(2020b)In2019,theWorldBankdeterminedthatSouthAfricaisthemostunequalcountryintheworldandtherecentlyreleased2020UNHumanDevelopmentIndexandHumanDevelopmentReportshowthatthecountryhasmadelittletonoprogressineradicatingitsinequalities.?SouthAfricahasbeenranked114outof189countriesassessedintheindexduetoitsdecliningstandardsoflivingandworseningincomeinequality.?Since2014,thecountryhasdroppedtworankslowerontheindex,andastheCovid-19pandemichasresultedinthelossofmorethan2millionjoblosses,thecaseofSouthAfricasinequalityisexpectedtogetworse.?Thecountrysinequalityinlifeexpectancyandeducationalsoranksassomeofthehighestdeviationsintheworld.?TheHDRalsoindicatesthatthereareanumberofSouthAfricancitizenslivingbelowtheinternationalpovertyline.Thereportnotesthat18.9%ofthepopulationabout11millionSouthAfricansliveonlessthanR28($1.90)aday,whichisaroundR800($55)permonth.?SouthAfricaisgrapplingwithgreatinequalities,whichcontributetoextremepoverty.TheUnitedNations17GlobalGoalstogetherworktowardsendingextremepovertyanditssystemiccauses.?Thesegoalscanonlybeachieved,however,ifunequalcountrieslikeSouthAfricacometotermswithseriousinequalitiesandworktowardssustainablesolutionstoeradicatepoverty.Takentogether,SouthAfricaisconfrontedwithamyriadofcomplex,deeplyrootedproblemsthathavefurtherexacerbatedthenationsinequalitiesinwaysthatlikelycouldnothavebeenforeseenwithanyaccuracyin1994,butwhichhaveneverthelessmanifestedthemselvesininsidiousways.GiventheenormityoftheproblemsandthehighstakesthatareinvolvedfortensofmillionsofSouthAfricanstoday,identifying,implementingandadministeringeffectiveandtimelystrategiestodirectlyaddresstheseissueshaveassumedincreasingimportance.Althoughthefollowinglistofinitiatives,programsandreformsthataredesignedtoreduceincomeandotherinequalitiesinSouthAfricaisnotexhaustive,itdoesreflectthetypesofeffortsthathavebeenusedintherecentpastorwhicharecurrentlybeingusedforthesepurposes.Table__Initiatives,programsandreformsdesignedtoreduceincomeinequalityinSouthAfricaSourceKeyfindingsCommentsDeWaal,M(2015)?AlthoughSouthAfricaspublicschoolsystemisamongtheworldmostexpensive,itprovidessuchpooreducationaloutcomesthatitistrappingpeopleinaviciouscycleoflifelongunder-andunemployment.?Moreover,deracializingtheSouthAfricanschoolsystemfailedtoresolvetheproblem.ThePartnersforPossibilityisaciviceffortthataimstoteachpublicschoolsinSouthAfricahowtoreboot,andtochangethelivesoflearnersinthehopeofbringingequaleducationtoallby2022.?Amajorbreak-throughhasbeenaninitiativebetweentheschools,UCTandTheDellFoundationthatseesteachersdoingadvancedmathstosharpentheirskillsandunderstandingofthesubject.Thisislikelytoboostmathsliteracyandoutcomesattheschoolsevenfurtherincomingyears.?ChangingtheschoolsystemcannotbelefttotheSouthAfricangovernmentalonebecauseitisacrisisofsuchmagnitudethatbusinessandcivicsocietyneedstopitchinandhelp.?Previouslytheschoolswereveryinsulatedandseparatefromeachother.WhatPartnersforPossibilityhasdoneistocreateanetworkoracommunityofprincipals.Thisisnewthinkingforpubliceducation.Previouslyeveryclass,everyteacherwoulddowhattheyneedtodo-whichwastoworkinsilos.?Becauseofapartheid,educatorshadthisnotionthatnobodycaresaboutus.Peoplewoulddrownintheirownsorrowsandthenbecomedependent.Thiswasaboutwaitingforsomeonetocomeandrescueus.Butwhenthelightsgoon,peoplerealizethattheydonothavetowaitforanyone.Theyrealizethatintheclassroomtheycanchangetheworld.BlackEconomicEmpowerment(BEE)program(2020).Throughitsblackeconomicempowerment(BEE)policy,theSouthAfricangovernmentaimstoachievethefollowingambitiousobjectives:1.Empowermoreblackpeopletoownandmanageenterprises(enterprisesareregardedasblack-ownedif51%oftheenterpriseisownedbyblackpeople,andblackpeoplehavesubstantialmanagementcontrolofthebusiness).2.Achieveasubstantialchangeintheracialcompositionofownershipandmanagementstructuresandintheskilledoccupationsofexistingandnewenterprises.3.Promoteaccesstofinanceforblackeconomicempowerment.4.Empowerruralandlocalcommunitiesbyenablingtheiraccesstoeconomicactivities,land,infrastructure,ownershipandskills.5.Promotehumanresourcedevelopmentofblackpeoplethrough,forexample,mentorships,learnershipsandinternships.6.Increasetheextenttowhichcommunities,workers,co-operativesandothercollectiveenterprisesownandmanageexistingandnewenterprises,andincreasetheiraccesstoeconomicactivities,infrastructureandskills.7.Ensurethatblack-ownedenterprisesbenefitfromthegovernmentspreferentialprocurementpolicies.8.AssistinthedevelopmentoftheoperationalandfinancialcapacityofBEEenterprises,especiallysmall,mediumandmicroenterprises(SMMEs)andblack-ownedenterprises.9.Increasetheextenttowhichblackwomenownandmanageexistingandnewenterprises,andfacilitatetheiraccesstoeconomicactivities,infrastructureandskillstraining.?SouthAfricaspolicyofblackeconomicempowerment(BEElaterBBBEE)isnotsimplyamoralinitiativetoredressthewrongsofthepast,itisapragmaticgrowthstrategythataimstorealizethecountrysfulleconomicpotentialwhilehelpingtobringtheblackmajorityintotheeconomicmainstream.?InthedecadesbeforeSouthAfricaachieveddemocracyin1994,theapartheidgovernmentsystematicallyexcludedAfrican,Indianandcoloredpeoplefrommeaningfulparticipationinthecountryseconomy.Despitethemanyeconomicgainsmadeinthecountrysince1994,theracialdividebetweenrichandpoorremains.?OneelementofBroad-BasedBlackEconomicEmpowerment(BBBEE)policyiscompaniescontributiontosocio-economicdevelopment.ThisistranslatedintoencouragementforcompaniestogivebacktothecommunitythroughCorporateSocialInvestment(CSI).?UndertheBBBEEguidelines1%ofnetprofitbeforetaxshouldbespentonsocialdevelopment,wherebycompaniesareencouragedtohaveatleast75%non-whitebeneficiaries.?BBBEEisenforcedthroughpreferentialprocurement,andcomplianceisnecessarywhencompaniesaimtodobusinesswithgovernmentorlargecorporations.?MostcompaniesoperatinginSouthAfricathereforehaveaCSIpolicywherebytheysupportsomeformofcharityorothertypeofdevelopmentprojects.Simson(2020)?Thispapercallsformorecountry-levelcomparisonsofinequalitytrends,tohighlightthemultiplicityofpathsinthislatestphaseofglobalization.?ThepoliticalandeconomicdriversofinequalitydeclineincountrieswithasteadyfallintheGinisuggestssomecommontrendsacrosstheglobe,includingtheroleofdemocratization,theriseofnewsocialmovements,andtheexpansionofeducationandsocialsafetynetsandfavorablecommodityprices,inreducingincomedisparities.?ThisresearchersurveysdataandliteratureonrecentinequalitytrendsinLatinAmerica,Asia,AfricaandtheMiddleEastandfoundthatintheseregions,therearemorecountrieswithfallingthanrisinginequalityoverthepast20years,asmeasuredbyGinisofincomeorconsumptioninequality.?Atthegloballevel,therefore,therearesignsofinequalityconvergence,asinequalityhasbeenfallingincountrieswithhighinequalityinthe1990s,andrisinginhistoricallylow-inequalitycountries.Crouch,RollestonandGustafsson(2021)?Theseresearchersshowhowvariousfactorssuchasgenderorwealthimpactlearninglevels,butalsoshowthatsystems-relatedinequality,notdirectlyrelatedtosuchfactors,istypicallymuchlargerthaninequalityassociatedwithanyofthosefactors.?Thefindingsfromthisstudyalsoshowthatcountriesprogressfromverylowaveragelevelsofachievementtomiddlelevelsmorebyreducingthepercentageofstudentswithverylowscores(thatis,bypayingattentiontothe\'bulging\'left-handtailofthedistribution)thanbyincreasingthepercentageofhighperformingstudents.?Unlikeinthecaseofincome,wherevastreductionsinincomeovertyseempossiblewithoutreducingincomeinequality,theevidencepresentedheresuggeststhatthistypicallydoesnothappenwithlearninglevels:inequalityreduction,reductionsinpercentagesbelowalowlevel,andimprovementsintheaveragesareallempiricallyconnected.Theavailabilityofmicrodatafromaparticularcaseallowsexplorationoftherelationshipbetweeninequalitymeasuresandmeasuresofthepercentageofstudentsbelowalowlevelofachievementandshowsthat,atleastinthatcase,thereductionininequalitythataccompaniesimprovementsintheaveragelevelstakesplacemostlythroughareductioninthepercentagebelowalowlevel.Moreworkisneededtoshowwhetherthatconnectionisalsocausal.ScarlatoanddAgostino(2019)?Post-apartheidSouthAfricaischaracterizedbyamarkedexpansionofsocialgrantsprovidedtovulnerablegroups,suchaspersonswithdisabilities(DisabilityGrant),olderpersons(OldAgePension),andchildren(ChildSupportGrantorCSG)inpoorhouseholds.?Thispolicy,whichiscenteredonincreasingthecoverageofunconditionalandmeans-testcashtransfers,wasimplementedundersocialandpoliticalpressuretoovercomethehighlyinequitableinheritanceoftheprevioussocialsecuritysystem,whichwasstronglymarkedbyracialdiscrimination,andtoreducethewidespreadpovertyandinequalities.?TheCSGsupportsthechanginglivingarrangementsofahousehold\'smembersinvulnerableandextendedfamiliesthathavetocopewithpovertyandtheweakconditionsoftheSouthAfricanlabormarket.?TheCSGseemstohelpthemen,whohavebetterchancesoffindingjobssuitablefortheirexpectationsinreallocatingtheirlabororsearchingforjobopportunities.WomenarelessaffectedbytheCSG.Mostofthemdonotleavetheemploymentstate,butitisstressedthatwhentheydo,theyexitaltogetherfromthelabormarket.?TheempiricalanalysisisbasedonthedatasetprovidedbytheNationalIncomeDynamicStudy(NIDS),whichwasimplementedbytheSouthAfricanLaborandDevelopmentResearchUnit(SALDRU)oftheUniversityofCapeTown.?TheNIDSisavailableforthewaves2008,201011,and2012andallowsaface-to-facelongitudinalsurveyofhouseholdresidentsinSouthAfrica.Itsaimwastofollowasampleofhouseholdmembersandregisterchangesinhouseholdcompositionsandmigrationsandseveraldimensionsofwell-being(suchasincomes,expenditures,assets,accesstosocialservices,education,health,andemployment).?Thedatasetalsoincludesinformationonthebeneficiaryhouseholdsofthesocialgrantsprovidedbythegovernment.Martins(2017)ThemaintoolsthathavebeenusedbytheSouthAfricangovernmenttoaddressincomeinequalitiesacrossthecountryincludesocialgrants,(includingthosespecificallyforchildren)andpoliciestogeneratejobs.Althoughpovertyhasbeenslightlyreduced,itremainswidespreadandthelevelofinequalityhasdeepened.Arie,BrightandDominque(2020)?BasedonaqualitativecasestudyinandaroundSouthAfricasPilanesbergNationalPark,theseresearchersassesswhetherthisseeminglycontradictorypolicycombinationelicitstheempowermentoftraditionallymarginalizedactors.Usinganinstitutionalapproachtoevaluatingsustainabledevelopmentpolicy,theauthorsfoundthatthesubstantiveaspectsofSouthAfrica\'spoliciesarewidelyacknowledgedinthePilanesbergarea.Theproblemrestswiththeproceduralaspectsofhowtodealwiththesharedresponsibilityofstakeholderswithdifferentinterestsandlevelsofauthority.?Theauthorsconcludethatpowercanbemeaningfullyshiftedtocommunitystakeholdersonlywhentheinvestmentsofglobalandnational-levelplayersareredirectedtowardsestablishingasystemofprocedurestosolvelocal-leveldisparitiesinskillsandpowerbetweenthe\"jointlyresponsible\"actors.?ThesedisparitiescurrentlyresultindeadlocksregardinglocalsustainabledevelopmentinthePilanesbergarea,despitepromisingmulti-levelpoliciesimplementedinthepost-apartheideratoavoidsuchsituations.Manydevelopingcountriesaimatbalancingmacro-level,growth-orientedeconomicpolicieswithlocalcommunity-baseddevelopmentstrategiesundertheauspicesofglobalgovernanceorganizations.SouthAfricaadoptssuchastrategytobecompetitiveintheglobalmarketand,simultaneously,toalleviatedomesticsocio-spatialinequalitiesinheritedfromtheapartheidperiod.Mayombe(2017)?Adultnon-formaladulteducationandtraining(NFET)hasbecomeasignificantdevelopmentalagendaaftertheWorldEducationForumconvenedinApril2000,hadapprovedtheDakarFrameworkforActiontotheachievementofEducationforAll(EFA).?TheWorldEducationForumstressedtheimportanceofensuringthatthelearningneedsofallyoungpeopleandadultsaremetthroughequitableaccesstoappropriatelearningandlifeskillsprograms.ThisempiricalstudyinvestigatedwhatconstitutesNFETenablingenvironmentsforemployment.?Thefindingsthatemergedfromthisstudyindicatedthatmanagersdidnotcreateadequatelinkagesthatcouldenablegraduatestoaccessneededpost-trainingsupport,communityresources,publicgoodsandservices.?Basedonthesefindings,theauthorconcludesthatwithoutlinkingthenon-formaladulteducationprogramstoexternalstakeholders,graduateswillcontinuetofinditdifficulttobeemployedortostartsmallbusinesseswhichperpetuatesunemploymentandchronicpovertyinSouthAfrica.Governments,organizations,agenciesandassociationsrepresentedattheWorldEducationForumhadtoimplementsixmaingoalsofEFAasfollows:1.Expandandimprovecomprehensiveearlychildhoodcareandeducation,especiallyforthemostvulnerableanddisadvantagedchildren;2.Ensurethatby2015allchildren,particularlygirls,thoseindifficultcircumstances,andthosebelongingtoethnicminorities,haveaccesstoandcomplete,freeandcompulsoryprimaryeducationofgoodquality;3.Ensurethatthelearningneedsofallyoungpeopleandadultsaremetthroughequitableaccesstoappropriatelearningandlife-skillsprograms;4.Achievea50%improvementinadultliteracyby2015,especiallyforwomen,andequitableaccesstobasicandcontinuingeducationforalladults;5.Eliminategenderdisparitiesinprimaryandsecondaryeducationby2005,andachievegenderequalityineducationby2015,withafocusonensuringgirls\'fullandequalaccesstoandachievementinbasiceducationofgoodquality;and,6.Improveallaspectsofthequalityofeducationandensuretheexcellenceofallsothatrecognizedandmeasurablelearningoutcomesareachievedbyall,especiallyinliteracy,numeracyandessentiallifeskillsMayombe1andLombard(2015)?Publicandprivatenon-formaladulteducationandtraining(NFET)centersinSouthAfricaaimtomeetthetrainingneedsofadultswhohavebeendeprivedofformaleducationwithcourseswhichfosteraccesstoopportunitiesforskillsacquisitionandemploymentandbringaboutsocialandeconomicinclusion.?However,manyadultswhowerefacinglong-termunemploymentduetoalackofmarketableskillsremainunemployedaftercompletingNFETprograms.?Theseresearchersfoundthatcentersfocusingonactivitiessuitableforself-employmentduringtrainingweremorelikelytocreateinternalenablingenvironmentsforskillsacquisitionandincomegenerationthancentersofferingcoursesdesignedforenteringpaidemployment.?TheauthorsconcludethatthereappearstobeasignificantcorrelationbetweenNFETcenterstrainingprogramobjectives,financialresources,traineeselectioncriteria,theprocessoftrainingneedsassessment,andskillsacquisitionforsuccessfulemploymentoutcomesofNFETgraduates.?Non-formaladulteducationandtraininginSouthAfricaisinstrumentalinbreakingthehighlevelofpovertyanddecreasingthesocialinequalitythecountrycontinuestofaceasapost-apartheiddemocracy.?Withouttheseinternalenablingfactors,adulttraineesarelikelytocontinuefindingitdifficulttointegrateintothelabormarketorparticipateineconomicactivitiesandhencebreakthecycleofpovertyandsocialexclusion.Schneider(2018)?ThefewelementsofANCpolicythatwerenotneoliberalincharacterwereresponsibleforthesuccessesthathaveoccurredsince1994.?TheexpansionofthesafetynethasbeenthemajoraccomplishmentoftheANCgovernment.In2014-2015,thegovernmentallocated11.1percentofitsspending(3.3%ofGDP)tosocialexpenditures,givingSouthAfricaoneofthelargestsocialgrantprogramsinthedevelopingworld.?Socialgrantsassistavastnumberofpeople:45.5percentofhouseholdsreceivedatleastoneformofsocialgrant(familyandchildren,oldage,sicknessanddisability,orsocialprotection)in2015.?Socialgrantshavestabilizedtheincomesofthepoorandpreventedinequalityfromworseningevenfurther.Povertyhasbeenreducedsomewhat,asthepercentageofpeoplelivingbelowthenationalpovertylinehasdeclinedfrom66.6percentin2005to55.5percentin2014,althoughtheamountofpovertyisstilldisturbinglyhigh.?Therehavealsobeenimprovementsinhousing,accesstohealthcare,andeducation,althoughmuchstillneedstobedoneinalloftheseareas.Inmacroeconomicterms,however,theresulthasbeenadismalfailure.?ThemajorfailuresotheANCsneoliberalpolicieswere(i)anincreaseinfinancialization,accompaniedbyalackofdevelopment,whichresultedinpoorincomegrowthandhighunemployment;and(ii)anincreaseininequality,aswellastheperpetuationofracialsegregationandanimosity.TheANCadoptedamostlyneoliberalapproachtodevelopment,mitigatedbysmalleffortstoalleviatepovertyviamodestexpansionsinthesafetynet,andsomecorporatistelements.ThemainpoliciespursuedbytheANCwerethefollowing:1.Acceptanceoftheapartheid-eradebt;2.Austeritytobalancebudgets,includingretrenchments,cutsininfrastructurespending,andattacksonpublicsectorunionstoreducewages;3.Openingoffinancialmarketsandeliminationofforeignexchangecontrols;4.Dramaticreductionoftariffsandtheimplementationoffree-tradepolicies;5.Privatizationofthelargestatesectorconstructedbytheapartheidregime;6.Deregulationofmanyaspectsofmicroeconomicmarkets;and7.Nosignificantredistribution-corporationsandindividualswereallowedtokeepthegainstheymadeunderapartheid.Mnkeni-SaurombeandZimu(2015)?Communitylibrariesareinternationallyrecognizedassocialinstitutionsthatcanaffectsocialandeconomictransformationinsociety.InSouthAfrica,thisisclearlymanifestedbytheprovisionofaconditionalgovernmentgrantforthedevelopmentofcommunitylibrariesinthecountry.?TheDepartmentofArtsandCulturestartedthisprojectin2007.Despitethisrecognitionforcommunitylibraries,theirroleintacklinginequalitiesinsocietyisnotalwaysclear.?FindingsfromtheliteratureandreportsfromtheDepartmentofArtsandCulturesuggestthatcommunitylibrariesareplayinganimportantroleincurbinginequalities.?TheresearchersalsoreportontheprogressoftheDepartmentofArtsandCulturesconditionalgrantcommunitylibraryproject.?Thoughtherehasbeensomeprogressintheprojectbutchallengesstillexistandmoreeffortandsupportarerequired.Itisvitalthatcommunitylibraryservicesbedevelopedandsustainedastheselibrariescanhaveapositiveinfluenceonthedevelopmentofsociety.Tacklinginequalitiesinsocietyremainsaseriouschallengeforpost-apartheidSouthAfrica.Thisbattlecallsforamultifacetedapproachthatinvolvesvariousstakeholdersincludingcommunitylibraries.Mlaba(2020)?AbalamiBezehkayaprojectteachespeoplebetterfarmingtechniquesandsellsfreshproduceweeklytogenerateincomesforthefarmersinvolved.?Inamovetocorrecttheinjusticesofthepast,theSouthAfricangovernmentisreleasingunderutilizedstate-ownedlandforpublicownership,withtheaimtosellmostofthelandtoBlackfarmers.?TheDepartmentofAgriculture,LandReform,andRuralDevelopment(DLRD)announcedthattheywillbereleasing896state-ownedfarmsforpublicpurchase,ortoleaseoveraperiodof30years.?Inordertomakesurethatthelandisusedforfarmingpurposes,theleasewillbenon-transferrable.ThegovernmentaimstoprioritizeBlackfarmersinthisprocess.?Inaddition,theprocessalsoshinesalightonwomen,theyouth,andpeoplewithdisabilitiesinordertofurtherleveltheland-ownershipplayingfield.?Althoughtheyformthemajorityofthepopulation,BlackSouthAfricanscurrentlyowntheleastamountoflandforfarmingandagriculture(4%),followedcloselybyIndianpeople(5%)incomparison,whitepeopleown72%offarmsandagriculturalholdingsownedbyindividuals.?PastlawsthatwereimplementedbeforetheapartheideraandheavilyenforcedduringapartheidprohibitedBlackpeoplefromowningorleasingland,whichledtomostoftheagriculturallandinSouthAfricabeingownedbywhitepeople.?TheUNsGlobalGoal10callsforequalityandprosperityforallbutracialinequalitysrelationshipwiththeGlobalGoalsgoesmuchfurther,impactinggoalsforhealth,education,andmore.TakeactionhereandjointhemovementtoendracialinequalityandachievetheUNsGlobalGoals.deVilliers(2021)?TheBerthaCentreforSocialInnovation&EntrepreneurshipworkstopursuesocialimpacttowardssocialjusticeinAfricawithasystemslensonsocialinnovationwithininnovativefinance,health,educationandyouthdevelopment.?TheaimofthisstudywastodemonstratethecapacityforsocialinnovationinhealthwithrespectforSouthAfrica,andtohighlightsomecurrentinnovationsthatrespondtoissuesofhealthequitysuchasaccessibility,affordability,andacceptability.?SouthAfricashealthcaresystemmaybeviewed,toalargeextent,asareflectionoftheissuesfacingotherSouthernAfricancountrieswithasimilardiseaseburden,lackofsystemicinfrastructureandcohesiveness,andsocietalinequalities.?TheevolvinghealthlandscapeinSouthAfricaandthereformsbeingundertakentoprepareforaNationalHealthcareInsurancepresentstheopportunitytounderstandeffectivemodelsofcareprovisionasdevelopedinotherAfricancontexts,andtotranslatethesemodelsasappropriatetotheSouthAfricanenvironment.?Despitetheendofapartheidintheearly1990s,SouthAfricaremainsraciallyandeconomicallysegregated.Thecountryisbesetbypersistentsocialinequality,poverty,unemployment,aheavyburdenofdiseaseandtheinequitablequalityofhealthcareserviceprovision.?TheSouthAfricanhealthsystemiscurrentlyengagedinthecomplexprojectofestablishinguniversalhealthcoveragethatensuresthesystemsabilitytodelivercomprehensivecarethatisaccessible,affordableandacceptabletopatientsandfamilies,whileacknowledgingthesignificantpressurestowhichthesystemissubject.TheinitiativesdescribedinTable__aboverepresentjustsomeoftheeffortsthatarebeingmadebythepublicandprivatesectorsinSouthAfricatodirectlyaddressthenationsmyriadinequalities.Theseeffortssuggestthatthemiraclethatwaspromisedin1994hasnotdied,buthasratherbeenonlifesupportformanyyearsbuttheprognosisiscautiouslyoptimisticassumingthatcurrentpoliticalleadersareabletocometogripswiththecorruptionandinefficienciesthatcontinuetoplaguethecountryatpresent.ChapterThree:Methodology[underdevelopment]MethodologyThisstudyusedanexploratorymixedmethodologydrawingonbothsecondaryandprimarysourcesaswellasquantitativeandqualitativestudiesbyprivatesectororganizations,nongovernmentalandgovernmentalagencies.TheprimarydatawillbecollectedusingacustomquestionnairedesignedaccordingtotheprinciplessetforthbyNeuman(2008)concerningtechniquestoimprovetherobustnessandpercentageofresponses.ThecustomquestionnairewasregardedasanessentialcomponentoftheresearchmethodologysinceitprovidestheopportunitytocanvassstakeholdersabouttheirviewsonreducingincomeinequalitiesingeneralandinaSouthAfricancontextinparticular.Thedatacollectedfromthecompletedcustomquestionnaireswillbeanalyzedusingthestatisticalanalyticaltoolsprovidedbytheonlinesurveyservice,SurveyMonkey,togeneraterelevantcross-tabulationsconcerningtheviewsofdifferentstakeholdergroupsaboutoptimalstrategiesforreducingincomeinequalitiesinSouthAfricatodayandinthefuture.Theresultingdatawillbepresentedintabularandgraphicformatsandinterpretedinanarrativefashiontoidentifysignificanttrendsandprevailingviewsamongrespondentsconcerningtheissuesofinteresttothestudyproposedherein.SampleTheoverarchingfocusofthestudymeantthattherearemultiplestakeholdersthatareinvolvedwhichshouldbeincludedinthestudyssample.Tothisend,thefollowingindividualsandorganizationsaretentativelyscheduledtoreceiveahard-copyoronlineversionofthecustomquestionnaire:1.BroadbasedgroupsincludingorganizedlabororganizationssuchastheCongressofTraditionalLeadersofSouthAfrica,theCongressofSouthAfricanTradeUnions,selecteduniversitystudentbodiesandyouthorganizations;2.RepresentativesofPoliticalorganizationssuchastheAfricanNationalCongress,DemocraticAlliance,EconomicFreedomFighters.3.MembersoftheSouthAfricanParliament;4.Academics;5.ExecutivesandboardmembersoftheSouthAfricanStockExchangeaswellasselectednon-stockexchangelistedcompanies;6.SouthAfricangovernmentdepartments,municipalitiesandstate-ownedenterprises;7.Economists;and,8.Otherstobedetermined.ReferencesArie,S,Bright,AandDominque,V(2020).Post-apartheidlocalsustainabledevelopmentthroughtourism:ananalysisofpolicyperceptionsamong\'responsible\'tourismstakeholdersaroundPilanesbergNationalPark,SouthAfrica.JournalofSustainableTourism,Vol.28,No.2,pp.414-432.Black,A(2016).TowardsEmployment-IntensiveGrowthinSouthAfrica.CapeTown,SouthAfrica:UCTPress.BlackEconomicEmpowerment(BEE)program(2020).BusinessinSouthAfrica.[online]available:https://www.businessinsa.com/bee/.Crouch,L,Rolleston,CandGustafsson,M(2021).Eliminatinggloballearningpoverty:Theimportanceofequalitiesandequity.InternationalJournalofEducationalDevelopment,Vol.82,pp.5-11.Daley,B(2021a,April29,202128).HowcorruptioninSouthAfricaisdeeplyrootedinthecountryspastandwhythatmatters.TheConversation.[online]available:https://theconversation.co/how-corruption-in-south-africa-is-deeply-rooted-in-the-countrys-past-and-why-that-matters-144973.Daley,B(2021b,April25).SouthAfricas1994miracle:whatsleft?TheConversation.[online]available:https://theconversation.com/south-africas-1994-miracle-whats-left-159495.deVilliers,K(2021).Bridgingthehealthinequalitygap:anexaminationofSouthAfricassocialinnovationinhealthlandscape.InfectiousDiseasesofPoverty,Vol.19,37-44.DeWaal,M(2015,April16).Education:SouthAfricasGlimmerofHope.Finweek,15-17.Dowdall,N,Ward,CLandLund,C(2017).Theassociationbetweenneighborhood-leveldeprivationanddepression:evidencefromtheSouthAfricannationalincomedynamicsstudy.BMCPsychiatry,Vol.17,No.395,2-11.Friedman,S(2021,March31).Thehierarchyofinequality.NewFrame.[online]available:https://www.newframe.com/the-hierarchy-of-inequality/.Friedman,S(2019,Spring).TheMoreThingsChange...SouthAfrica\'sDemocracyandtheBurdenofthePast.SocialResearch,Vol.86,No.1,pp.279-303.Giniindex.(2021).Investopedia.[online]available:https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/gini-index.asp#:~:text=The%20Gini%20index%2C%20or%20Gini,wealth%20distribution%20among%20a%20population.GlobalCases.(2021).JohnsHopkinsCoronavirusResourceCenter.[online]available:https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html.Kavya,BandSanthakumar,S(January2020).EconomicDevelopment,FinancialDevelopment,andIncomeInequalityNexus.BorsaIstanbulReview[inpress].Kerr,P,Durrheim,KandDixon,J(2017,March).Beyondthetwo-groupparadigminstudiesofintergroupconflictandinequality:ThirdpartiesandintergroupalliancesinxenophobicviolenceinSouthAfrica.BritishJournalofSocialPsychology,Vol.56,No.1,pp.66-73.Kollamparambil,U(2020,January).Happiness,HappinessInequalityandIncomeDynamicsinSouthAfrica.JournalofHappinessStudies,Vol.21,No.1,pp.37-44.Kollamparambil,U(2017,December).ImpactofInternalIn-MigrationonIncomeInequalityinReceivingAreas:ADistrictLevelStudyofSouthAfrica.JournalofDevelopmentStudies,Vol.53,No.12,pp.19-31.Kollamparambil,U(2021,February).Socio-EconomicInequalityofWellbeing:AComparisonofSwitzerlandandSouthAfrica.JournalofHappinessStudies,Vol.22,No.2,pp.1-14.Levy,B,Hirsch,AandNaidoo,V(2021).SouthAfrica:WhenStrongInstitutionsandMassiveInequalitiesCollide.CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace.[online]available:https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/03/18/south-africa-when-strong-institutions-and-massive-inequalities-collide-pub-84063.MajorBEEchangesarecomingforsomeofSouthAfricasbiggestindustries(2021,April13).BusinessTech.[online]available:https://businesstech.co.za/news/business/482805/major-bee-changes-are-coming-for-some-of-south-africas-biggest-industries/.Martins,JH(2017,April).HouseholdBudgetsasaSocialIndicatorofPovertyandInequalityinSouthAfrica.SocialIndicatorsResearch,Vol.81,No.2,pp.203-221.Mayombe,C(2017,April).Integratednon-formaleducationandtrainingprogramsandcenterlinkagesforadultemploymentinSouthAfrica.AustralianJournalofAdultLearning,Vol.51,No.1,pp.105-113.Mayombe,CandLombard,A(2015).Howusefulareskillsacquiredatadultnon-formaleducationandtrainingcentersforfindingemploymentinSouthAfrica?InternationalReviewofEducation,Vol.61,611-630.MeasuringtheprogressofdevelopmentinSouthAfrica.(2021).DepartmentofStatisticsSouthAfrica.[online]available:http://www.statssa.gov.za/?p=13908.Mlaba,K(2020a,November27).FiveshockingfactsthatshowwhySouthAfricaistheworldsmostunequalcountry.GlobalCitizen.[online]available:https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/con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